It thus becomes a choice between evidence-based science (life came from other planets) vs the Jewish-Christian religion (life came from Earth) as advocated by the religious extremists at NASA headquarters, and Science and Nature magazine who wish to force the rest of us to accept their religious beliefs.

The fact is, there is nothing special about Earth, this solar system, or this galaxy; they are but grains of sand in a sea of infinite night. And if Earth and this galaxy were destroyed tomorrow, their absence would go unnoticed in the vastness of a cosmos where spiral galaxies and Earth-like planets are as common as star light.

But what of the possibility of contamination? "Contamination" is how life began on Earth. Moreover, some of the microfossils discovered by Hoover, were completely alien, unlike anything on this planet. Therefore, these particular species must have adapted to life on a planet completely unlike Earth.

The discovery of Cyanobacteria is of particular importance. Let us be clear. Hoover found more than "complex filaments." He found the remnants of cynobacteria mats which can take up to 6 months to form. And they were discovered in a meteor older than Earth. It is Cyanobacteria which helped create the oxygen atmosphere of this planet. Cyanobacteria also secrete calcium when creating their mats, and this calcium made it possible for shells, bones, and the skeletal system to evolve.

Cyanobacteria are a hardy species, and can live in extreme environments. Therefore, if Cyanobacteria are deposited on Earth-like planets, it can be assumed they would also biologically engineer these alien worlds, providing them with an oxygen atmosphere and flooding the environment with calcium, thereby making it possible for life to evolve into intelligent species, similar to or completely different from, and possibly more intelligent than woman and man.

Most scientists will agree that life on this planet evolved from single celled microbes. Therefore, we can conclude, since life was present on this planet from the beginning, that living creatures fell to Earth encased in stellar debris which pounded the Earth for 700 millions years after the creation. And these "seeds" contained the DNA which led to the metamorphosis of all life, including humans (Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe 2011). Similar events must have taken place on innumerable planets.

And what if these bacterial "seeds of life" fell upon planets unlike our own? If they could take root and flourish, they might evolve into creatures completely unlike those of Earth. This might account for the truly "alien" microbes discovered by Hoover (2011).

The implications are profound. It can be assumed that life is everywhere and has a cosmic ancestry which extends backwards in time, interminably into the long ago, and that intelligent life has evolved on countless Earth-like planets (Joseph 2010). And we can predict that life must have continued to evolve on innumerable worlds which are much older than Earth, surpassing and evolving beyond the humans of Earth before our planet was even formed. Great extra-terrestrial technologically advanced civilizations likely ring the cosmos, including on planets billions of years older than our own.

There is no evidence life began on Earth. Life was present on this planet from the very beginning.

Life on Earth has a cosmic ancestry.

The preponderance of evidence demonstrates life on Earth, came from other planets.

Our ancient ancestors journeyed here, from the stars.

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2. The Search for Extraterrestrial Life
Michael H. Engel, Ph.D.,
School of Geology & Geophysics, 100 East Boyd St.. The University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK 73019 USA

About once every decade a scientific discovery is reported that elicits passionate debate concerning the possible existence of extraterrestrial life, past or present. Nagy et al. (1961) reported the occurrence of biogenic hydrocarbons in the Orgueil meteorite and then subsequently went on to describe possible relict microstructures that looked similar to microbial life forms on Earth (e.g. Nagy et al., 1963). Levin and Straat (1976) reported the results of experiments performed during the Viking Mission to Mars that could be interpreted as possible evidence for extant microbial life. Engel and Nagy (1982) reported the occurrence of non-racemic amino acids in the Murchison meteorite (L-enantiomer excess) that could be interpreted as possible evidence for past extraterrestrial life. McKay et al. (1996) reported possible evidence for fossil microbial life in the Martian meteorite ALH84001.

The report by Richard Hoover (2011) concerning the occurrence of fossil cyanobacteria in the Ivuna and Orgueil meteorites will be met with excitement by some and reservation by others. There are legitimate reasons to initially be skeptical of these findings, not the least of which being the antiquity of these observed falls (Orgueil, 1864; Ivuna, 1938) and the methods of sample collection and storage available at those times. Also, there have been several reports that apparent microbial structures in ancient, Precambrian rocks on Earth may be artifacts rather than actual fossils (e.g. Brasier et al., 2002), thus underscoring the challenges of documenting ancient life on Earth, no less elsewhere in the solar system.

It will be necessary for independent experts in microbiology to determine whether the photomicrographs of microfossils in meteorites published by Hoover (2011) are sufficiently similar in morphology to modern analogs to likely be the remains of extraterrestrial cyanobacteria. Given the importance of this finding, it is essential to continue to seek new criteria more robust than visual similarity to clarify the origin(s) of these remarkable structures.

Bartholomew Nagy (1975) noted that whilst some microstructures in carbonaceous meteorites were obvious contaminants, it was going to be a formidable task to establish the origins of the multitude of structures that appeared to be indigenous to the Orgueil meteorite. In his recent publication, Hoover (2011) provides new and important information concerning the compositions of the microstructures in CI1 meteorites. He reports that the microbial structures are permineralized with minerals rich in magnesium and sulfur. This is consistent with the mineral composition of the Orgueil meteorite, which, in addition to a clay matrix includes, for example, breunnerite and magnesium sulfate (Nagy, 1975).

Also, as Hoover points out, contamination of these meteorites by living cyanobacteria would presumably have required that these stones be immersed in liquid water that is essential for cyanobacterial growth. He also correctly notes that if these stones had been in water, this would have caused their disintegration via dissolution of the water soluble salts that act as the cement for the meteorite matrix. Further evidence for the indigeneity of these microstructures is provided by FESEM images showing the light element compositions of the filaments. In particular, the C/N and C/S values for the filaments are distinct from those of living organisms. Similarly the nitrogen abundances of the meteorite filaments are far lower than what is observed for cyanobacteria. This might indicate that much of the original nitrogen in the organic matter that comprised these structures had been lost by, for example, the deamination of amino acids. However, it is interesting to note that bulk extracts of the Orgueil meteorite contain low concentrations of amino acids, eight of which are common protein amino acids on Earth (Engel, 1980). The fact that the remaining twelve protein amino acids that are common to all organisms on Earth are not found in Orgueil (Engel, 1980), lends further support to Hoover's contention that these stones have not experienced much in the way of recent microbial contamination.

The search for extraterrestrial life is one of the fundamental quests of all mankind. Given the enormity of the galaxies that comprise our universe, we remain convinced of the certainty that life exists elsewhere. The paradox is that when faced with the actual possibility of evidence for extraterrestrial life, we quite often feel more compelled to ignore it or refute it rather than embrace it. Perhaps this has something to do with our inherent fear of the unknown. With respect to these new findings, I encourage people to keep an open mind when forming an opinion as to the significance of this work.

Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., van Kranendonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A. and Grassineau, N.V. (2002) Questioning the evidence for Earth's oldest fossils. Nature 247, 76-81.

Engel, M.H. (1980) Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Arizona.

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Hoover, R.B. (2011) Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology 13, In Press.

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Nagy, B., Meinschein, W.G. and Hennessy, D.J. (1961) Mass spectroscopic analysis of the Orgueil meteorite: evidence for biogenic hydrocarbons. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 93, 25-35.

3. Fear of the Unknown: Do You Believe in Extraterrestrial Life? Definitely Maybe!
Cody Youngbull, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor Research, Arizona State University, Biodesign Institute, Center for Biosignatures Discovery Automation, AZ

Richard Hoover's recent JOC report of meteorite microfossils has sparked broad interest and excited public discourse (Hoover 2011). The story has gone viral with major media news sources and internet blogs all carrying reports of this story. And so too the experts, for whom this information is not new, who have been monitoring the accounts of fossils in these same meteorites since 1961 have something to get excited about (Claus & Nagy, 1961). This is because, while the elemental and mineral composition data remains identical to prior accepted reports, the morphological data far exceeds anything yet shown on the subject.

Unless you doubt Hoover's integrity or the instruments and methods he used, then the amino-acid set, isotopic ratios, and elemental signatures imply you must rule out the idea that this evidence of ancient microbial life in space is nothing more than standard biological contamination. All that would remain for the critic is to argue for a non-biological origin of the microscopic structures. Hoover posits that the structures he shows are reminiscent of cyanobacteria, and he provides examples of similar morphologies in living organisms. But the variety and complexity of chemical interactions over the unknown, potentially 4 billion year history of these meteorites leaves room for an as yet unidentified inorganic process which could have created them. For example, just last month in the journal Nature, similar filamentous structures have been explained by non-biological processes (Marshall et al., 2011).

There is a meta-message in Hoover's work that applies to all observation which is that both the giving and receiving of information is inherently filtered through a subjective lens. Take the following simplistic but useful analogy: you are driving through farm country and your travel companion points out the window exclaiming, "Pig!" In this context only a glance would be necessary to convince you of the veracity of the statement. Now take that same situation but on an airplane and your quick glance out the window would not, and arguably should not, be sufficient to convince you. In the case of Hoover's report, he has taken much more than a simple glance. He builds upon the work of people who have spent decades scrutinizing and analyzing these same five meteorites. Pouring over observations, making reports and addressing peer identified weaknesses, this recent data really represents a culmination of arguments and best results of a much larger effort made by many excellent scientists. Beyond the smoking gun of finding a living extraterrestrial, these observations are, by degree, as good as it will ever get for the astrobiology community.

Information filters go beyond the intrinsic contextual filter as demonstrated by the flying pig. One can identify many other hackles that this paper raises. First and foremost is the polarizing topic itself, call this a personal belief filter. I mean, come on, alien fossils?! It falls on the same square as perpetual motion, evolution and climate change. Most people are ensconced in a specific camp and will instantly dismiss any reports counter to their own preconceptions. Another filter is the method of its communication; call this the venue filter. In this case the venue being the online journal.

Given the quality of Hoover's work, perhaps the high impact journals that should carry a story like this see themselves as simply too big to fail to risk a potential loss of credibility? Or is it that they do not give second chances? Online peer review is a wonderful contribution to science because it allows for wild ideas to be shared where otherwise they would be forced to exposition in a flood of conference proceedings. If there were no room for wild ideas and peer reviews were always critically skeptical we would never have made it this far as a society. Then there is the filter of the conflicting interest or the credibility given the funding source. NASA scientists have significant reason to find signs of life in space. And yet, the name NASA carries a weight of believability in its name and history. Besides, who better to study the phenomena than the very people whom our tax dollars pay to study it? Not to be overlooked is the filter of fear - the fear to be thought a heretic by reporting the information. The stigma of studying something that has arguably never existed is well carried by people who call themselves astrobiologists. There is a fine line between the fear and pleasure of the spot light but should you ever get the chance to hear Hoover personally speak on this subject, you would sense his genuine motivation for the truth inside these mysterious type CI1 carbonaceous meteorites.

Based on similar past claims of the past 50 years, what will likely follow is that healthily skeptical experts will dream up reasonable mechanisms for these formations. Regardless, let us recognize Hoover's brave devotion to such a powder keg of an observation. At a time when NASA is in decline and the last shuttle mission is about to launch, experts in the field should think carefully about how their blog post opinions of this data effects the future of space exploration and science education in this country. So the next time someone asks you if you believe in the purported evidence for alien life, you'd now be wise to take joy in saying, "Definitely maybe!"

Claus, G; Nagy, B A (1961). Microbiological examination of some carbonaceous chondrites Nature, 192 (480): 594-&.

Hoover, R.B. (2011), Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

Marshall, C. P., Emry, J. R. & Olcott Marshall, A. (2011). Nature Geosci. advance online publication doi:10.1038/NGEO1084.

4. Why Couldn't Life Evolve Independently, On Earth?
Harrison H. Schmitt, Ph.D.
College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Former United States Senator, Apollo 17 Astronaut, 12th and last man to set foot on the Moon.

I will let others more expert than I comment on Hoover's evidence of life forms in CI1 meteorites. I only wonder why many do not seem to want life to have originated independently on Earth? It is the one place we know best and have the best evidence that conditions existed prior to about 3.5 billion years for complex molecules and then replicating life forms to have formed. Water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, impact and/or lightning energy, clay and/or sulfide templates, and time were available from about 4.5 billion years ago. We just have to figure out how it all happened.

5. A Critical Analysis: Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CII Carbonaceous Meteorites
M.A. Line, Ph.D.,
Honorary Research Associate, School of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania

As Carl Sagan said, an extraordinary claim demands extraordinary evidence. I believe the extraordinary evidence is in this paper, but it could be better presented. However, instead of focusing on the strength of this paper, which are many, I think it is more important to take a look at possible weaknesses.

For example, the abstract includes information which I believe is not supported by the Figures (of branched filaments, akinetes or hormogonia, in meteoritic material). I know for a fact the author has much better photographs than the ones given in this paper and do not understand why they were not included. Perhaps they would have made the paper even longer, when it is already of excessive length? I also believe the Hoover should have included mention of the reported excesses of L- over D-enantiomers of alanine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid in the Ivuna meteorite (Table 1V) in his summation.

I cannot agree with the contention that there is a ‘tuft of fine fibrils' visible at the left terminus of the image in Figure 1d; perhaps these have not reproduced-well in the photograph before me. In the absence of this tuft, Figure (1d) is the least-convincing component of the paper; a sceptic might wonder how long it would take to find such a structure as that shown within the background detritus seen in this figure.

The relatively low abundance of N and P in some of the fossils (both in meteorites and terrestrial material) (Figure 6a) is easily explained; these elements are generally in relatively low abundance and therefore in high demand by other microorganisms. Following the death of sheathed biota their cytoplasm is rapidly devoured by smaller bacteria leaving a highly-N/P-depleted skeleton. Unfortunately the low N/P content of the filaments or sheaths reported in the study do not convinced me that these sheaths are the remains of life-forms that existed before Earth-contact (as claimed in the Results and Conclusion), because if they represent contaminants, then they too would have suffered N/P-depletion following their death. The continuing presence of N in mammoth and mummified hair do not provide a counter argument, they simply show that the environments in which these hairs existed were not conducive to microbial mineralization.

I believe too much attention is also given to cell-similarity of images of meteoritic forms with those of terrestrial origin. For example, the form shown in Figure 1a is likened with that of T. velox, yet the latter bacterium is found in mesophilic low-salinity habitats, whereas the aqueous habitat of comets or meteorites is almost certainly psychrophilic and probably highly saline. A more subtle reason to ignore cell-similarities lies in the evolutionary histories of the biota. The habitats of biota that either survive or proliferate in comets or meteorites are going to be highly restricted relative to the plethora of habitats found on Earth. Even if we accept the more radical of panspermia hypotheses (e.g. Wickramasinghe, 2011; Wickramasinghe et al., 2003) that the Earth receives a constant rain of living biota of extraterrestrial origin, such biota would be uncompetitive in terrestrial habitats because of the principle of competitive-exclusion; terrestrial biota are highly evolved to survive in the habitats that they live in. There is constant competition in all habitats for sources of energy and nutrients, new-comers to the block should therefore perish. As a result, the evolutionary distance between extant terrestrial biota and those found in meteorites can be expected to be large.

A couple of points that arise from this investigation, are the implications of the discovery of cyanobacteria in meteoritic material of extra-terrestrial origin. Firstly it raises the possibility of a deep (longer than the time available on Earth) evolutionary history for aerobic metabolism, a contention that is strongly supported by recent phylogenetic studies. Secondly, since cyanobacteria comprise just a branch of the Domain Bacteria, their existence in meteoritic material means that the three domains of life (Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota) evolved and separated prior to their colonization of Earth (e.g. Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe, 2011). It would also mean that life on Earth did not originate from a single cell; representatives of all three domains must have arrived from space.

Joseph, R. (2010). Life on Earth, Came From Other Planets. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

Wickramasinghe, N.C., Wainwright, M., Narlikar, J.V., Rajaratnam, P., Harris, M.J., Lloyd, D. (2003), Progress toward the vindication of panspermia. Astrophys. Space Sci., 283, pp. 403-413.

6. Life from Outer Space
B.G. Sidharth, Ph.D.,
International Institute for Applicable Mathematics & Information Sciences Hyderabad (India) & Udine (Italy), B.M. Birla Science Centre, Adarsh Nagar, Hyderabad - 500 063, India

Recently Richard Hoover (2011) has examined CI1 carbonaceous meteorites to conclude that there are large complex laments embedded in freshly frac- tured internal parts of the meteorite. Moreover the detailed morphological characteristic and chemical composition of the meteoritic laments are in- consistent with known material. Hoover concludes that the laments in the CI1 carbonaceous meteorites are not terrestrial contaminates but rather are extraterrestrial in origin and have been brought down to the earth.

All this is very suggestive though perhaps not conclusive, as yet keeping in mind the experience with the ALH 84001 meteorite of the 1990s. This me- teorite seemed to have been ejected from the Planet Mars a few billion years ago and after a long and circuitous journey fell to Earth and remained buried in the Antarctic region for a few thousand years. Dr. David Mckay and others claimed that there were distinct traces of fossilized micro life. While this is a possibil- ity, the general consensus has been that they are inanimate mineral features. However, whereas McKay and colleagues (1996) identified "nano-bacteria" as fossilized life, and which appears to have turned out to be naturally occurring crystalized structures, Hoover has discovered cyaobacteria and alien species which have never been been seen on Earth. Clearly, the latter are not of terrestrial origin.

These findings raise questions about the origins of life on Earth. Could life have arisen independently on numerous planets, including Earth? Certain the consensus view is life formed on this planet following the fortuitous mixture of various chemicals, some of which may have fallen from space (Russell 2011; Sidharth 2009, 2010). If true, then the same might apply to other Earth-like planets.

A minority view which has been championed by Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe (see Wickramasinghe 2011), and Joseph (2010), is that life is pervasive throughout the cosmos and was transported here in extra-terrestrial material including comets.

However, as I have tried to stress, both views may be correct. Life may be deposited on planets which already were swarming with life (Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe 2011). The same could be said of the chemical necessary for life. They may fall upon living planets, or on worlds which simply lack the necessary ingredients, thereby kick starting life (Sidharth 2010). To give an example, in a laboratory synthesis us- ing Uray-Miller type experiments, equal quaantities of righthanded and left- handed amino acids are produced whereas in life process on Earth it is the lefthanded amino acids that predominate (Sidharth, 2009). This is exactly what is observed in the meteorite samples that have been examined. Interestingly such an asymmetry is needed for all important photo chemical processes like photo- synthesis to take place. Such processes cannot take place with a symmetry between lefthanded and righthanded amino acids or racemic molecules as they are called.

The importance of all this is that life would be more wide spread in the universe than if it had originated entirely on the Earth. What can we conclude from all this? We are not alone. Life may be everywhere.

Hoover, R. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites, Journal of Cosmology, 13.

Joseph, R. (2010). Life on Earth, Came From Other Planets. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

McKay, D. S., Gibson Jr., E. K., Thomas-Keprta, K.L., Vali, H., Romanek, C. S., Clemett, S. J., Chillier, X.D. F., Maechling, C. R., Zare, R. N. (1996_. Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Science 273 (5277): 924-930.

Sidharth, B.G. (2009). In defence of Abiogenesis in Journal of Cosmology 1, 73-75.

Sidharth, B.G. (2010). Chirality and the Cosmic Origin of Life New Ad- vances in Physics, 4, 1-9.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

7. Adjusting the Moral Compass for Navigating in a Living Universe
Saara Reiman
School of Social and Moral philosophy, University of Helsinki

Possibility of existence of past or even present microbial life forms in meteorites and other small astral bodies poses important challenges for our understanding of the ethics of space exploration. Hoover's research suggests that complex filaments found embedded in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites represent the remains of indigenous microfossils of cyanobacteria and other prokaryotes associated with modern and fossil prokaryotic mats. He concludes that the detection of evidence of viable microbial life in ancient ice (Abyzov et al., 1998, 2005; Hoover and Pikuta, 2010) and the presence of microfossils of filamentous cyanobacteria and other trichomic prokaryotes in the CI1 carbonaceous meteorites has direct implications to possible life on comets and icy moons of Jupiter with liquid water oceans (e.g. Europa, Ganymede or Callisto) and Saturn's moon Enceladus.

Already in 1967 Lynn White Jr. asserted that what we do collectively depends on what we collectively think; and the corollary to this, that to change what we collectively do depends on changing what we collectively think (White 1967). J. Baird Callicott finishes the thought by saying that if we are to change what we do to the environment, we must begin by changing what we think about the environment (Callicott 2000). According to Aldo Leopold, we abuse the land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. But when we see the land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect. In his opinion, this is the only way land can survive the impact of mechanized man. (Leopold 1948). Stephen Quilley has interpreted Leopold's Land Ethics to mean that ethics is a surface manifestation of deeper internal changes in intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections and convictions (Leopold 1948, Quilley 2009). Sometimes, as we study it, the nature itself can prompt such a change. Hoover's article discusses nature, but his research should also influence the ethics of space exploration. It now seems that we should change the way we think about asteroids, comets and other small objects and, consequently, how we conduct our space-related activities.

A confirmed discovery of life that has evolved outside Earth is a big step, but it is still just a beginning. After that, the next big task is to learn more about life in the universe. How common is life? How diverse is it? How complex? In what sort of environmental conditions can life survive? These are big questions, and therefore the preservation of potential extraterrestrial life must be given a high priority even in activities where the primary goal is not directly related to studying extraterrestrial life. As humanity gains better ability to explore space, it should also prepare to make great discoveries by accident and as a byproduct of other space-related activities. On the other hand, as we learn more about life, our ability to search for it from space will also improve. Hoover's research, as well as Dr. Wolfe-Simon's (Wolfe-Simon et al. 2010) recent research on bacterium GFAJ-1 capable of utilizing arsenic in its biochemistry, indicate that our understanding on what life is capable of surviving, is undergoing great changes. Therefore, we have to conclude that our ability to make educated assumptions of where life can and can not survive for extended periods of time, and where we might find traces of extinct life, is still limited. At this time, any activity based on assumptions instead of empirical studies is a gamble that has a potential to severely damage one of our most important scientific interests. Instead, there is a possibility that instead of a source of natural resources and a laboratory, space is in fact more like Leopoldian land: a community of a kind, containing many homes for many kinds of life. In order to avoid causing irreparable damage, we should utilize the ALARP principle and adopt research policies that take into account the possibility of discovering life from even unexpected places (Reiman 2010).

I believe than an international binding agreement should be made, that prior to any activity that has the potential of destroying life potentially present on asteroids or other astral bodies, it must be scientifically studied and it must be concluded that the body in question does not contain life or scientifically valuable traces of it. Now is the time to exercise intellectual humility and adjust space policy to reflect that attitude. An intellectually humble attitude is not assuming that unless specifically proven otherwise, space and small objects in it are lifeless. Instead, we should base our understanding on growing scientific knowledge and search for signs of life from bodies that interest us prior to engaging in potentially destructive activities. While our knowledge is still far from complete, this approach demonstrates our commitment to learn and to act upon knowledge rather than most convenient assumptions.

According to Tom Colwell, environment should not be considered an object but rather a complex consisting of space-time and thing-person connections, for which the concept of relation does not properly convey the ecological sense in which humans are implicated in the complex (Colwell 1987). This attitude suits well to considering space environments that are essentially unknown and may harbor unknown forms of life and could be interpreted to refine the Leopoldian idea of space as a land. Hoover's research identifies a wide variety of celestial bodies as potential havens for life: carbonaceus meteorites, asteroids, comets and even icy lunar environments. Small astral bodies seem to be much more than rocks and dirty snowballs floating in space with no more value than the value of the raw materials they contain. Even if life forms discovered in bodies such as comets and asteroids turn out to be relatively uninteresting microbial fossiles, their discovery has the potential to improve our knowledge on questions such as how common life is in near space, where and in what kind of environments has it originated, how resilient it is, how common and how serious are evolutionary challenges that life forms have encountered.

Besides scientific value that extraterrestrial microbes represent, we should also value fragility of life and space environments (Williamson 2006). Taking this fragility as one of the starting points for ethics of space exploration gives humanity an opportunity to exercise its best qualities: sustainability, careful consideration and compassion. Fragility also serves as a mirror that tells us what kind of people we really are. Are we the kind of noble and peaceful explorers that science fiction so eagerly portrays us to be? Or are we just a race of dreamers who can dream up beautiful worlds but in reality ends up building a world where greed justifies everything and the only rights that are respected are the rights of the strongest? As we gain technological ability to extend our influence into the space, do we also gain wisdom to exercise it to the greatest good or are we only capable of thinking our limited short term interests?

We have a choice in these matters. In the past, humanity's space exploration has already seen scientific experiments that had the potential to cause great harm for life, had any life forms been present on the study sites (Reiman 2010). As we learn more about the nature, not only our scientific knowledge should improve, but this improvement should evolve into an understanding and affect the way scientific research is conducted in the future. According to Geoffrey Frasz, Aldo Leopold, one of the most influential figures in environmental ethics and originator of land ethics discussed above, is seen as a hero not because he had the right ideas from the beginning of his career, but because he reformed his life and thinking when he adopted policies guided by environmental and ecological insights that he eventually came to love (Frasz 1993). We should strive to follow his example.

Abyzov, S.S., Mitskevich, I.N., Poglazova, M.N., Barkov, M.N., Lipenkov, V.Ya., Bobin, N.E., Koudryashov, B.B., Pashkevich, V.M., 1998: Antarctic ice sheet as a model in search of Life on other planets. Advances in Space Research, 22, 363-368.

Abyzov, S. S., Gerasimenko, L. M., Hoover, R. B., Mitskevich, I. N., Mulyukin, A. L., Poglazova, M. N., Rozanov, A. Yu., 2005: Microbial Methodology in Astrobiology. SPIE, 5906, 0A 1-17. Callicott, J. Baird 2000: Introduction to Ethics. https://fore.research.yale.edu/disciplines/ethics/index.html. Page accessed on 3 Mar 2011.

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Hoover, R. B. and Pikuta, E. V. 2010: Psychrophilic and Psychrotolerant Microbial Extremophiles. In: Polar Microbiology: The Ecology, Biodiversity and Bioremediation Potential of Microorganisms in Extremely Cold Environments. (Asim K Bej, Jackie Aislabie, and Ronald M Atlas, Eds.) pp. 115-151.

Hoover, Richard B. 2011: Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus Journal of Cosmology, 2011, Vol 13, In Press. Leopold, Aldo 1949: A Sand County Almanac and Sketches from Here and There. Oxford University Press.

Quilley, Stephen 2009: The Land Ethic as an Ecological Civilizing Process: Aldo Leopold, Norbert Elias and Environmental Philosophy. Environmental Ethics, vol. 31, p.115-134.

Reiman, Saara 2010: On Sustainable Exploration of Space and Extraterrestrial Life. Journal of Cosmology Vol.12 p. 3894-3903.

White, Lynn Jr 1967: The Roots of Our Ecological Crisis. Science, 155, 1203-1207.

Williamson, Mark 2006: Space: The Fragile Frontier. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Virginia.

Wolfe-Simon Felisa et al 2010.: A Bacterium That Can Grow Using Arsenic Instead of Phosphorus. Science DOI 10.1126/science.1197258

8. Can a Meteorite Falling on Earth Originate from Earth?
Patrick Godon, Ph.D.,
Astronomy & Astrophysics, Villanova University, Villanova, PA

Hoover (2011) presents firm evidence of fossils of bacteria embedded inside the bulk of CI1 Carbonaceous meteorites, based both on the physical appearance (studied with electronic microscope technology) and composition of the samples (using spectroscopy). While the evidence clearly indicates that the meteorite at one time was populated with bacterial life, could this meteorite be part of an object that earlier separated from Earth due a massive impact? In other words: is this meteorite really of extra-terrestrial origin?

The text of Hoover indicates some striking similarities between the meteorites and Earth material as follows:

“The CI1 carbonaceous chondrites are the most primitive of all known meteorites in terms of solar elemental abundances and the highest content of volatiles. Carbonaceous chondrites are a major clan of chondritic meteorites that contain water, several weight % Carbon, Mg/Si ratios at near solar values, and oxygen isotope compositions that plot below the terrestrial fractionation line. The CI1 meteorites are distinguished from other carbonaceous chondrites by a complete absence of chondrules and refractory inclusions (destroyed by aqueous alteration on the parent body) and by their high degree (~20%) of indigenous water of hydration. The aqueous alteration took place on the parent bodies of the CI1 meteorites at low temperature (<50 C) and produced hydrated phyllosilicates similar to terrestrial clays, carbonates and oxides magnetite Fe3O4 and limonite Fe₂O₃ . nH₂O. Sparsely distributed throughout the black rock matrix are fragments and crystals of olivine, pyroxene and elemental iron, presolar diamonds and graphite and insoluble organic matter similar to kerogen."

The CI1 carbonaceous chondrites are extremely rare. Although over 35,000 meteorites have been recovered there are only nine CI1 meteorites known on Earth. The particulates of the CI1 meteorites are cemented together by water soluble evaporite minerals such as epsomite (MgSO₄.7H₂O) and gypsum (CaSO₄.₂H₂O). These stones disintegrate immediately after they are exposed to liquid water, and disaggregate into tiny particles as the water soluble salts that cement the insoluble mineral grains together in the rock matrix dissolve. A number of biominerals and organic chemicals (that are interpreted as biomarkers when found in Earth rocks) have been detected in CI1 carbonaceous meteorite. These include weak biomarkers including some that are produced in nature by biological processes but can also be fomed by catalyzed chemical reactions. However, the CI1 meteorites also contain a host of strong biomarkers for which there are no known abiotic production mechanisms.

It is not clear when life first appeared on Earth, though it has been speculated that it could have occurred before the late heavy bombardment, as soon as the Earth had time to cool down from the early heavy bombardment (Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe 2011). If indeed life appeared on Earth more than 4 billion years ago, the late heavy bombardment as well as other later catastrophic collisions (like the one that might have wiped the dinosaurs 65 million years ago) have certainly ejected some earthly material back into space. These objects of terrestrial origins contained primitive life forms which may or may not have died as the catastrophic events took place. These terrestrial objects are expected to have many similarities with terrestrial material at the time of the original impacts. There should be only a small fraction of these terrestrial objects forming small bodies, either directly or by having merged with extra-terrestrial objects, and an even smaller fraction would have kept their original physical state. From that small fraction of terrestrial objects in orbit in our Solar System (possibly in the vicinity of Earth’s orbit or closer to the Sun) some might eventually find their way back to Earth in the form of meteorites and I suggest that meteorites presenting evidence of bacterial fossils as well as striking similarities with Earth’s material might just be such objects. If correct, then these objects are not less important than if they were of extra-terrestrial origin, as they present fossils of bacteria from Earth dating back to when some of these impacts took place.

Any meteorite presenting even the slightest evidence of bacterial fossils will have to be scrutinized not only for terrestrial contamination after it fell on Earth, but also one would have to unambiguously prove that the meteorite did not originate from Earth in the first place.

Hoover, R.B. (2011), Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

Joseph, R. (2010). Life on Earth, Came From Other Planets. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

9. Life in CI1 Carbonaceous Chondrites?
Martin D. Brasier, Ph.D.,
Dept of Earth Sciences, Parks Road, Oxford, UK

These meteoritic 'microfossils' provoke fascinating questions about the lines of reasoning and evidence needed to confirm whether very ancient candidate structures are biologically credible, or whether they are better explained by abiogenic processes and contamination. Such a debate has been going on since the time of Darwin and recently re-emerged when the 3.46 Ga Apex ‘microfossils’ were questioned (Brasier et al. 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006).

Microfossils from the early Earth and beyond require criteria. These include evidence for a habitable context; biology-like morphology; and biology-like processing. Ancient filamentous structures should not be accepted as biological until possibilities of their non-biological origin, or contaminant origin, have been examined.

Candidate biologic signals should always be placeable within a well-defined history. In terms of biology-like morphology, they should not form part of a continuum with other non-biological structures. They should ideally show distributions consistent with biological behaviour rather than with self-organizing structures (see Brasier et al. 2005, 2006). In terms of processing, more than a single metabolic tier should ideally be demonstrated, as with evidence from extracellular polymeric substances, organominerals or isotopic fractionations. Finally, the material should be available for scientific loan, for scientifically repeated tests and public scrutiny. And, of course, the null hypothesis of an abiogenic origin from several sources should be falsified.

How do the structures illustrated by Hoover (2011) from CI1 carbonaceous meteorites meet with these criteria?

1. In terms of context, a history of genesis for this rock, and for a confident placement of those structures within that storyline, has yet to be provided. This is now an essential step for early life work in the Earth Sciences.

2. In terms of syngenicity, these samples have been sitting around in laboratories for between 205 and 73 years. It is well known that microbial contaminants can penetrate deep into such rocks, even during storage. The null hypothesis, therefore, is that many of these objects (e.g., Hoover 2011, figs 1, 3) may be prokaryotic contaminants.

3. In terms of technique, multiple techniques are essential. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of fractures is notorious for making contaminants look integral to any given rock. EDS is poor at the best of times for detecting carbon and nitrogen. It is seldom employed in early life studies, where it has now been surpassed by Raman, TEM and NanoSIMS (e.g. Brasier et al. 2002, Wacey et al. 2008a).

4. In terms of geochemical techniques, my understanding is that quantitative analyses require an instrument has been calibrated with a set of standards, for a specific working distance and for a flat surface, as for example on polished rock. Different setups (beam current, working distance etc) on different SEM machines should be avoided.

5. In terms of nitrogen, different organic materials will lose nitrogen at different rates depending on the organism and its context. Nitrogen cannot be measured accurately with EDS, and the comparisons are open to questions about selectivity.

6. In terms of the amino acids said to be present, it can be argued that the values from filaments are being swamped by the bulk values from the carbonaceous chondrites themselves.

7. In terms of morphology, several (for example Hoover 2011, figs 2-5) could be said to resemble abiogenic ambient inclusion trails (AITs), commonly mistaken for cyanobacterial microfossils, including by Hoover and his colleagues (see Zhegallo et al. 2000). Such AITs are formed by the forward projection of minerals under gaseous pressure through a solid or liquid medium Such trails can be recognised by their distinctive infillings with secondary minerals; by longitudinal striations along their edges; by their irregular or polygonal cross sections; by their curved and twisted patterns; and by a tendency for some of them to cross cut or branch; Terminal mineral grains may even mimic 'heterocysts' (see Brasier et al. 2006, McLoughlin et al. 2007; Wacey et al. 2008a, 2008b). Many AITs have a similar composition to those described from the meteorites by Hoover (filaments with margins enriched in carbon and infilled with sulphur and silica rich minerals). Such abiogenic scenarios require rigorous investigation.

Brasier, M.D., Green O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., Van Kranendonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A. & Grassineau, N.V. (2002). Questioning the evidence for Earth's oldest fossils. Nature 416, 76-81.

Brasier, M., Green, O., Lindsay, J. & Steele, A. (2004). Earth's oldest (c. 3.5Ga) fossils and the 'Early Eden Hypothesis’: questioning the evidence. Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere 34, 257-260.

Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Lindsay, J.F., McLoughlin, N., .F., Steele, A. & Stoakes, C. (2005). Critical testing of Earth’s oldest putative fossil assemblage from the ~3.5 Ga Apex chert, Chinaman Creek, Western Australia. Precambrian Research 140, 55-102, 22 plates.

Brasier, M.D., McLoughlin, N., Green, O. & Wacey, D. (2006). A fresh look at the fossil evidence for early Archaean cellular life. In Cavalier-Smith, T., Brasier, M.D. & Embley, T..M. (Eds) Major Steps in Cell Evolution: Palaeontological, Molecular and Cellular evidence of their Timing and Global Effects. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B, volume 361, 887-902.

Hoover, R.B. (2011). Fossils of cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites. Implications to life on comets, Europa and Encaladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13, xxx.

McLoughlin, N., Brasier, M.D., Wacey, D., Green, O.R. & Perry, R. (2007). On biogenicity criteria for endolithic microborings on early Earth and beyond. Astrobiology. 7. 10-26.

Wacey, D., Kilburn, M., McLoughlin, N., Parnell, J. , Stoakes, C., Grosvenor, C. & Brasier, M.D. (2008a).Use of NannoSIMS in the search for early life on Earth: ambient inclusion trails in a c, 3400 Ma sandstone. Journal of the Geological Society, 165, 43-53.

Wacey, D., Kilburn, M., Stoakes, C.A., Aggleton, H. & Brasier, M.D. (2008b). Ambient inclusion trails: their recognition, age range and applicability to early life on Earth. In Y. Dilek et al. (Ed.) Links Between Geological Processes, Microbial Activities and Evolution of Life. 113-134. Springer, Berlin.

Zhegallo, E, Rozanov, A.Yu, Ushatinskaya, G.T., Hoover, R.B., Gerasimenko, L.M., & Ragozina, A.L. (2000). Atlas of microorganisms from ancient phosphorites of Khubsugul, Mongolia. NASA TP29901, 167pp.

10. Bioinformatic Analysis of Cyanobacterium Nitrogen Fixation Genes in Support of the Cylindrospermopsis-like Fossil Explanation of Meteorite Microscopic Data
Todd Holden, Ph.D., George Tremberger Jr., Tak Cheung, Ph.D.
CUNY Queensborough Community College, Bayside NY 11364

Hoover makes a compelling case that the filamentous-heterocyst structures observed in CI1 meteorites are likely to be fossils of extraterrestrial microscopic organisms with phenotypes similar to some cyanobacteria (Hoover, 2011). Among the many observations the absence of nitrogen as well as several crucial amino-acids is good evidence against the possibility of terrestrial biological contamination. Chemical analysis also shows that the proposed fossil structures are dissimilar to the matrix materials. However, with a topic as essential and historically fraught with controversy, even this weighty evidence is not yet completely convincing. There is certain to be attacks claiming that the microstructure could be caused by abiotic means, but whether a mechanism can be found that can explain the chemical information is unclear at this time. In this commentary, we address the question of what sort of evidence of extraterrestrial life one might expect to encounter.

With little material of extraterrestrial origin available for study, we are unlikely to see remnants other than ubiquitous organisms from a life-sustaining environment. On the other hand, single cell organisms may be too small to leave discernable traces, unless they are found alive in their native extraterrestrial environment. Earth’s prokaryotes are among the simplest life forms that show distinguishing structures that could leave behind fossilized evidence, avoiding the complications of sustaining life in space and terrestrial biological contamination. The great diversity of cyanobacterial morphology certainly includes multicellular filaments such as those presented by Hoover (Stucken et al., 2010). Although the evidence suggests only morphological similarity, cyanobacteria are excellent candidates for the type of extraterrestrial life that we might expect to find, due to their omnipresence, adaptability, and variety on Earth.

We would like to comment on the genetic diversity of cyanobacteria that we found in our previous studies of the nitrogen fixation genes (Tremberger et al., 2010). Nitrogen fixation genes NifH, NifD, and NifK have been studied phylogenetically, and recent results on NifD and NifK genes provide strong support for the placement of Actinobacteria (Frankia) nitrogen fixation genes at the base of the combined Cyanobacteria-Proteobacteria clades (Hartmann and Barnum, 2010). A study using phylogenetic analysis of the nitrogen fixation gene cluster suggests a common ancestor for several cyanobacteria (Welsh et al., 2008). We have studied the bioinformatics of several cyanobacteria nucleotide sequences of NifH, NifD and NifK genes in terms of Shannon entropy and fractal dimension (Tremberger et al., 2010). The fractal dimension analysis of nucleotide fluctuation uses the nucleotide atomic number to form a numerical series. We found that the suggested common ancestor referred to above gave rise to a correlation in Shannon mono-nucleotide entropy of NifD (Mo-Fe nitrogenase alpha chain) and NifK (Mo-Fe nitrogenase beta chain). A fractal dimension correlation exists between the NifH (coding the Fe nitrogenase) and NifD sequences. The observed correlation suggests the ability of these organisms to adapt to evolutionary pressure even at the DNA level.

At the protein level, these genes bear only slight resemblance. For example, a comparison of the NifH and NifD amino acid sequences in BLASTP generates 17% query coverage at E-value of 1.2, showing very little similarity (NifH Genbank ACB49910 & NifD Genbank ACB49911). The nucleotide fractal dimension correlation of NifH with that of NifD across the studied cyanobacteria would point to similar evolutionary selection on positional ordering of nucleotides. To relate our study to Hoover’s comparison of the meteorite fossils with Cylindrospermopsis, we added Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii CS-505, which has the smallest genome among free-living filamentous cyanobacteria, to our regression study. In addition, we added UCYN-A, a unicellular cyanobacterium with only nitrogen fixation and no photosynthesis activity (Tripp et al., 2010), as well as the smallest known genome sized cyanobacterium (1.5 Mb compared to the studied common ancestor cyanobacteria of ~ 5 to 9 Mb). These organisms fit our general trend, although imperfectly, possibly due to their more distant relation to the seven cyanobacteria studied by Welsh et al. Therefore, the Cylindrospermopsis-like organism’s once-upon-a-time existence outside Earth would be an interpretation consistent with Hoover’s reported data.

For these reasons, and those given in Hoover’s paper, the picture of fossils of a cyanobacteriumlike species explains simply the morphological and chemical makeup of the samples. Further evidence will be needed to give a definitive conclusion as to the validity of the proposed find of fossils in these samples. Contradictory evidence would likely come in the form of a purely chemical and physical explanation of the sample chemistries and morphologies based on the likely histories of the meteorites. Supporting evidence would come from studies on other cometlike meteorites or direct experiments in space. In the meantime, a simple putative model of extraterrestrial life can explain all of the current data reported by Hoover.

Hartmann L.S., Barnum S.R. (2010). Inferring the evolutionary history of Mo-dependent nitrogen fixation from phylogenetic studies of nifK and nifDK. Journal of Molecular Evolution, 71(1):70-85.

Hoover, Richard B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13

Stucken K., John U., Cembella A., Murillo A.A., Soto-Liebe K., et al. (2010). The Smallest Known Genomes of Multicellular and Toxic Cyanobacteria: Comparison, Minimal Gene Sets for Linked Traits and the Evolutionary Implications. PLoS ONE 5(2): e9235.

Tremberger George, Jr., Holden T., Cheung E., et al. (2010). Cyanobacteria gene and protein sequences in diurnal oscillation metabolic processes. Proc. SPIE 7819, 78190U

Tripp H. James, Bench Shellie R., Turk Kendra A., Foster Rachel A., Desany Brian A., Niazi Faheem, Affourtit Jason P., Zehr Jonathan P. (2010). Metabolic streamlining in an open-ocean nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium, Nature, 464, 90-94.

Welsh Eric A., Liberton Michelle, Stocke Jana, et al. (2008). The genome of Cyanothece 51142, a unicellular diazotrophic cyanobacterium important in the marine nitrogen cycle. PNAS., 105, 15094 – 15099.

12. Microfossils in Meteors and Comet Dust: A Vindication of Panspermia
Chandra Wickramasinghe , Ph.D.
Centre for Astrobiology, Cardiff University, UK

The detection of microfossils in carbonaceous meteorites (Hoover 2011) adds to the substantial body of evidence that now supports theories of panspermia.

At the dawn of the 20th century Nobel Laureate Svante Arrhenius (1908/2009) placed the ancient theory of panspermia in a scientific context in his book Worlds in the Making. In the 1970’s and 1980’s one the twentieth century’s foremost astronomers, Fred Hoyle and the present writer (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe 1981, 1982, 2000) promulgated a new theory of cometary panspermia. The basic idea was that the de novo emergence of life in the diminutive setting of the Earth is untenable, and that the origin of life must be considered in a pan-astronomical or cosmological context as a possibly unique event. According to this theory, following such a cosmic origin microorganisms remain frozen in cometary bodies, and are also transported within comets from one location to another.

Interstellar dust contains a minute fraction of viable microorganisms expelled in the tails of comets along with a vast preponderance of dead/fossilised microbes and their degradation products (Wickramasinghe et al., 2010). Surviving microbes are continually recycled and vastly amplified within the warm liquid interiors of comets during the initial phases of the formation of any planetary system. Inevitable exchanges of biotic material between planets, comets as well as embryonic planetary systems provide ample scope for Darwinian evolution on a cosmological scale (Joseph 2000; Joseph & Schild 2010a,b).

The theory of cometary panspermia is exempt from the criticism of non-falsifiability that so plagued earlier versions of panspermia. Various predictions of this theory can be identified and tested. The prediction that comets expel organic and biological material in various stages of degradation is imminently testable using modern astronomical techniques. After the 1986 missions to comet Halley, the organic content of comets was amply verified. A wide range of complex organic molecules has indeed been observed in comets, including the results of insitu studies of cometary nuclei following the Deep Impact and Stardust missions (Wickramasinghe et al., 2010). Vast quantities of organic molecules including PAH’s discovered in interstellar clouds are better understood as biodegradation products, rather than as evidence for the dubious thesis of ubiquitious prebiology (Joseph 2009; Wickramasinghe 2010). Figure 1 shows spectroscopic evidence in support of the former possibility.

A more startling and controversial prediction of cometary panspermia is that material from comets reaching Earth contains not just organic molecules but evidence of life itself. During annual meteor showers such as the Leonids, cometary debris in the form of centimetre-sized particles burn up as they enter the atmosphere at high speed. Smaller clumps of comet dust enter the atmosphere steadily at the rate of about 50 tonnes per day, and these particles do not burn up on entry. Occasionally much larger bodies – meteorites - , which can be regarded as chunks of spent comets, also make their way through the atmosphere. Outer surfaces of such meteorites are ablated by friction with the atomosphere, but their interiors remain cold during the re-entry process in a way that fragile organic structures could be preserved (Wickramasinghe 2011). Is there evidence for microbial life in extraterrestrial bodies that reach Earth?

In January 2001 clumps of cometary dust were collected aseptically in the stratosphere from heights that are too high to loft 10 micrometre sized of dust from the Earth’s surface. We have reported evidence of both fossilised microbes (acritarchs) and living microorganisms in the cometary dust, the analysis being from electron microscopy and EDX studies (Wickramasinghe et al., 2011). Electron micrography and EDX data for putative acritarchs (common fossils in the geological sediments) are shown in Figure 2a. Images of living microbes are shown in Figure 2b. Evidence for living microbes could, if one so wished, be dismissed as contamination, however unlikely this might be in view of the stringent containment protocols that were adopted. However, the morphologies fossil microbes that we have discovered, combined with other biosignatures including a nitrogen deficit, are more difficult to ignore.

In the 1960’s there were serious claims (Claus and Nagy 1961) that bacterial fossils exist in meteorites, but these were dismissed quickly because in a few instances contamination was actually proved. Nearly two decades later the problem of microbial fossils in carbonaceous meteorites was re-examined by Hans D. Pflug (1984) with special attention being paid to avoid the criticisms of earlier. Pflug used state-of-the-art equipment to prepare ultra-thin sections (< 1mm) of the Murchison meteorite in a contaminant free environment. Thin slices of the Murchison meteorite were placed on membrane filters and exposed to hydrofluoric acid vapour. In this way in situ demineralisation was achieved, the mineral component being removed though the pores of the filter, leaving carbonaceous structures indigenous to the meteorite in tact. A wealth of morphologies with distinctive biological characteristics was thus revealed. Examples are shown in Figs 3a and 3b. Fig 3a shows structures uncannily similar to a well-known bacterium pedomicrobium, and Fig. 3b displays a clump of nanometric-sized particles with internal structure similar to a modern influenza virus. In view of the techniques used in the preparation of the slides, it could be asserted with confidence that all these structures are indigenous to the meteorite, not contaminants.

Microprobe analysis using laser mass spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, UV and IR spot spectroscopy were used to determine composition as well as to establish the indigenous nature of individual particles. Pflug’s laser mass spectrum analysis on one of these particles is shown in Fig. 3c. From the disposition of Fig.3c, with many of the peaks yet to be unambiguously identified, we see that the particles with these biological-type morphologies also have chemical signatures fully consistent with degraded or fossilised microbial matter.

Recent work by Richard Hoover (2011) appears to be even more secure from the criticism of contamination. Fig. 4 shows one of very many organic structures identified by Hoover in the Murchison meteorite. The similarities of morphology between living cyanobacteria and the Murchison fossils are staggering to say the least. In addition to morphology Hoover points out that the putative fossils are deficient in N compared with modern organisms, indicating that the structures cannot be modern contaminants. It is also exceedingly difficult to understand how modern cyanobacteria can be sucked into the interiors of infalling meteorites – meteorites are heated and expel volatiles as they come in, they do not suck in terrestrial microorganisms, particularly those with a Nitrogen deficiency.

The pioneering work of Pflug and Hoover leaves little room to doubt that carbonaceous meteorites such as the Murchison meteorite (that fell near Victoria, Australia in 1969) have unequivocal evidence of microbial fossils. The criticism that this constitutes an extraordinary claim for which extraordinary evidence is needed is facile to say the least. The more extraordinary claim is to justify that life is centred on the Earth, and that Earth-life is in some way special to our minuscule abode in the universe.

The presence of fossils of alien life in the dust and fragments of comets would provide strong support for cometary panspermia, and indeed confirm our cosmic ancestry beyond doubt. The emerging picture is that the origin of life was a unique cosmological event that was accomplished within planetary interiors within interiours of cometary type bodies within a few million years of the Big Bang (Gibson et al 2010). Comets are carriers and amplifiers of cosmic life and Earth was seeded with such life some 4 billion years ago, and continues to be seeded even to the present day. On this picture self-similar life forms must exist abundantly throughout the entire universe.

These conclusions are so far-reaching that further studies are urgently needed for their absolute and final confirmation. If this can be done the implications for science and humanity will be profound. The cost of such projects would be only a minute fraction of that involved in manned space flights and probes to study planets and comets that are already in train. And the payoff would be well worth the effort and the cost.

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12. The Discovery of Fossil Evidence of Extraterrestrial LIfe in Meteors
Elena Pikuta, Ph.D.
University of Alabama, Huntsville, Alabama

The research and findings reported by Hoover (2011) began 10 years ago. His article represents a sensational discovery which will has the potential to change our understanding on the origin of biosphere, and which has profound implications for biology, astrophysics, and cosmology. The results of this investigation conducted on unique samples of CI1 carbonaceous meteorites has revealed new unknown data which was analyzed and interpreted according to the current standards in science using highly sensitive laboratory techniques. While conducting this pioneering work, the author had faced difficulties associated with differentiation of fossilized remnants of microorganisms so as to distinguish them from any possibility of modern contamination. His work is remarkable as he had to discover and employ the most rigorous validation requirements for biological fossils in meteorites. All of this work took enormous time and energy.

Furthermore, morphological identification itself involved the participation of world-known authorities in different fields of microbiology, geology, and paleontology. Hoover devoted his life to these pursuits and spent enormous time in consultations with specialists from numerous institutions and countries, organization of conferences and meetings. The result was the establishment of the commission for improvement and validation of biomarkers in meteorites. Hoover's article became possible because of all these uneasy tasks were successfully solved after 10 years of hard work.

Moreover, I would like to emphasize the importance of development of specific instrumentation without which this work would probably not exist. Only the application of Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) allowed for measurements of element composition along with receiving high quality images. During these measurements, Hoover came to a conclusion that modern bacterial contamination differs from embedded fossils in meteorites by several criteria. These criteria became biomarker standards for the validation process of microfossils. As control measurements. Hoover applied divers biological samples from different (by time) sample sites; they included mammoth hair, materials from Egyptian mummies, Archaean rocks with fossilized Cyanobacteria, insects sealed within amber, trilobites, modern samples of Cyanobacteria, and living cultures of extremophilic bacteria. The comparative measurements demonstrated that microbial microfossils do not contain nitrogen and have a low ratio of some elements. Moreover, only 8 of 22 amino acids were detected in water/acid extracts of studied meteorites. An interesting working hypothesis about an extraterrestrial origin of the biological microfossils was developed based on the fact that several amino acids were missing in measured meteorite samples.

In the introduction, Hoover outlines the definition and current classification of CI1 carbonaceous chondrites, and gave a brief history including the scientific developments that were available at that time to analyze the meteorites. Mostly, chemical analyses were performed for certain chemical elements and salts. No microscopic observations were reported for these meteorites.

In this article Hoover presents data of Ivuna CI1 and Orguei CI1 meteorites studies. These meteorites are two of the five known CI1 carbonaceous meteorites, which are very rare and were documented by eyewitnesses as falls. The Orguei meteorite was found to contain 4.56 Gy magnetites, and that means its microfossils were originated before life developed on Earth. Let me stress this again: The Orguei meteor is older than Earth.

On my opinion, the most exciting conclusion in this work is the finding that δ¹³C and D/H content of amino acids and other organics in meteorite samples are very consistent with an interpretation of comets as the parent bodies of the CI1 carbonaceous meteorites.

In my opinion, Hoover was overly cautious in referring to the observed subjects as "complex filaments." Any experienced microbiologist can see these are fragments of cyanobacterial mats. In nature cyanobacterial mat represents a complex system, where symbiotic relations between algae (usually dominated by Cyanobacteria) and bacteria create tissue-like formations. Members of such a mat coexist on base of closely depended upon physiological functions, and the location of each participant is determined by red-ox potential, links in trophic chain, etc. Modern studied types of Cyanobacterial mats form the stromatolite structures that according to the paleontological records represent lithified remnants of predominant life forms on Early Earth (Precambrian). At least three to six months would be required to form such a mat, and the complexity of such structures is typically much higher than that associated with ordinary biofilm of contamination, which is usually dominated by monoculture of a substrate surface colonizer. In other words, Hoover discovered evidence of established bacterial colonies.

Another important fact: The evidence that C/N and C/S ratios in investigated filaments were similar to ancient fossilized bio-materials and kerogens but very different from biological samples of living organisms proves that studied samples did not contain any modern bio-contamination.

I would like to add several words about Taxonomy and Systematics of microorganisms. At present, Cyanobacteria are the subject for both botanical and bacteriological nomenclature. Bacteriological taxonomy uses phenotypic description and data of 16S rRNA sequence analysis. In botanical Systematics, the morphological description plays a central role in the determination of appropriate taxa for studied species. That is why algologists as well as paleontologists classify their samples exclusively based on observations, and why specialists of these fields can easily identify the species and the genus of well preserved fossils just by looking at images of cells. It is precisely for this reason that Richard Hoover dedicated his time to a scrupulous description of found fossils. However, he was also aided following numerous consultations at the Institutes of Microbiology, Geochemistry and Analytical Chemistry, and Paleontology at Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Pasteur, Geological Institute at Royal Society of Belgium, etc.. It was the efforts of hundreds of scientists who made this work possible. As one of the results of this collaborative work, was the publication of the first atlas for astrobiology and paleontology with the best images of phosphorites in microfossils.

The importance of Hoover work is unparalleled. Its implications will be reverberate through the halls of science for decades, and will only be surpassed with the discovery of extra-terrestrial life. Long time ago, one of the ancient Greek philosophers said "Per aspera ad astra!" ("Through the Thorns to the Stars"), and with these words I am finalizing my commentary.

Hoover, R. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites, Journal of Cosmology, 13.

13. Understanding the Emergence of Life on Earth
Rosanna del Gaudio, Ph.D.,
Molecular Biology Laboratory, Dept of Biological Sciences, University Federico II, Via Mezzocannone 8, 80134, Naples, Italy

The complexity of life, of even a single celled organism, has made it difficult to understand how life itself could spontaneously emerge from chemical processes on the early Earth. Not much is known about plausible pathways of pre-biotic evolution though theories abound (Russell, 2011).

There is a growing of evidence indicating that "life" began in interstellar clouds perhaps in planets within these clouds, before the Solar System was formed (Hoyle and Wickramasinghe 2000, Gibson and Wickramasinghe 2010, Joseph and Schild 2010). It is also proposed that the evolution of life on Earth has been directly impacted by viral and microbial genes transferred from life forms outside our planet (Joseph 2000, 2009). Although no indisputable demonstration exists yet of extraterrestrial life, it is largely agreed that the presence of living systems on Earth may be the outcome of evolutionary processes started elsewhere in the Galaxy beginning with simple chemicals.

Hoover (2011), in general agreement with the panspermia hypothesis, provides convincing experimental evidence of fossils of different types of bacteria, which are similar to Cyanobacteria, are present inside the most primitive of all known meteorites. This supports those theories that life on Earth and elsewhere originated from microbes (and/or spores) that survived in the nebula which gave birth to our solar system. As Joseph (2009) has convincingly argued, life did not originate as a simple and random specific event on Earth, but probably through cycles of repeated events in a long time history that led to selfassembling and reproducing systems that evolved somewhere in the galaxy and that were transported from one planet or its satellites to another via generally accepted mechanisms of star and planet formation. Assuming that life potentialities can express themselves only in proper conditions, there certainly is the possibility (and indeed plausibility based on experimental data) of panspermia as a mechanism of transmitting life between planetary bodies (Arrenhius, 1908) and for delivering alien life from one planet or moons to another and on Earth as a cosmological infection (Joseph, 2009).

A thousand word commentary is not sufficient for discussing in detail different points of views, or abiotic geochemistry). Instead I will focus on a particular experimental fact reported in Hoover's paper. I fully agree with Richard Hoover that the finding of several of the amino acids, abundant in living bacteria and not found in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites and ancient terrestrial fossils, provides strong evidence that these meteorites are not contaminated by modern biological materials. Indeed, Hoover's discovery is a step forward, but perfectly in line with the most recent results of Pizzarello et al. (2011) on carbonaceous meteorites (CR2). However, the statement that fossilized microorganisms are present in meteorites could also be better supported. In other words, I am not convinced that the bacteriomorphic structures identified by Hoover are fossilized bacteria. Instead, I propose as provocative speculation that a variety of alien life different from modern earthly microrganisms are inside meteorites as well as inside rocks of our planet (Geraci et al. 2001) and other moons of our solar system. These "seeds of life", that is, actual living organisms are dormant and waiting, across time and space, for the right conditions to emerge, after which, they may begin to evolve.

I can accept that life on Earth may have come from other planets (Joseph 2009) or from elsewhere (Hoover, 2011). However, I'm personally convinced, (on the base of results of my recent experiments, to be published) that early forms of life were also already present in our solar system at the time of Earth formation. In addition, my belief is that life has also could spontaneously emerge from abiotic geochemical processes on the early Earth as previously proposed (Martin and Russel 2003, del Gaudio et al 2009) and supported (del Gaudio et al. 2010). Therefore, I proposed a Multiple Root Genesis (MuRoGe) hypothesis in which deterministic and randomness views are not necessarily considered to be alternatives (del Gaudio et al, in preparation), but rather that both may have been at work. That is, life may have been deposited on this planet, but life may have also independently arose on this planet.

In conclusion, even if forms of microbial life were delivered, are delivered or will be delivered by meteorites, evidence is not yet sufficient to consider an extra-terrestrial origin of life as a solid fact. Is it possible that different organisms subject to similar environmental conditions gradually converge and can mask evidence of independent biogenic events? Is it possible that alien life forms have begun their activity on the Earth using a different set of amino acids evolving up using the same basic molecules appearing analogous to life forms of the current life tree? I'm convincing that Hoover's results (2011) provide good evidence which may provide an answer to these questions.

Basic questions remain: i) How and where were the first life forms formed? ii) What were the conditions on those planets which provided these life "seeds" with the necessary ingredients to kick-start life, and how did these conditions make life possible?

Diffusion of Hoovers results (2011), collaborative works and continuation of this research line will be necessary in order to collect evidence of a "second" genesis giving a strong support to the theory that microbial life is a cosmic phenomenon.

Arrhenius, S. (1908). World in the Making. Harper & Brothers, New York.

del Gaudio, R., D'Argenio, B., Geraci, G. (2009). Evidences of catalytic activities from and inside meteorites. Did they contribute to the early Life by increasing molecular complexity of a "primitive soup"?. Orig. of Life and Evol of Biosph., 39, 357-358.

del Gaudio, R., Geraci, G., D'Argenio, B. (2010). Role of meteorites and terrestrial rocks in prebiotic chemistry. European Planetary Science Congress, 5, 907.

Geraci, G., del Gaudio, R., D'Argenio, B. (2001). Microbes in rocks and meteorites: a new form of life unaffected by time, temperature, pressure. Rendiconti Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, s.9 (Mat) 12, 51-64.

Gibson, C. H. and Wickramasinghe, N. C. (2010). The imperative of cosmic biology. Journal of Cosmology, 5, 1101-1120.

Hoyle, F. and Wickramasinghe, N.C. (2000). Astronomical Origin of Life: Steps towards Panspermia. Kluwer Academic Press.

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmolog, 13, in press.

Joseph, R. and Schild, R. (2010). Biological Cosmology and the Origins of Life in the Universe. Journal of Cosmology, 5, 1040-1090.

Joseph, R. (2000) Astrobiology, the origin of life, and the Death of Darwinism. University Press, California.

Joseph, R. (2009). Life on earth came from other planets. Journal of Cosmology, 1, 1-56.

Martin, W. and Russel, M.J. (2003) on the origins of cells: A hypothesis for the evolutionary transition from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokariotes to nucleated cells. Philosophical Tansactions, Biological Sciences, 358: 59-85.

Pizzarello, S., Williams, L.B., Lehman, J., Holland, G.,H. and Yarger, J., L.(2011) Abundant ammonia in primitive asteroids and the case for a possible exobiology. Proceedings of the Academy of Science, ahead of print doi:10.1073/pnas.1014961108.

Russell, M. (2011). Origins, Abiogenesis, and the Search for Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

14. Is The Origin of Life Really Alien?
Andrea Nani, Ph.D.¹, Andrea E. Cavanna, M.D. Ph.D.²,
¹School of Psychology, University of Turin, Italy. ²Department of Neuropsychiatry, BSMHFT and University of Birmingham, UK, ²Department of Neuropsychiatry, Institute of Neurology and University College London, UK

The perennial question on the origin of Life on Earth has been revived by a recent discovery by Hoover (2011) of microfossils similar to Cyanobacteria, in freshly fractured slices of the interior surfaces of the Alais, Ivuna, and Orgueil CI1 carbonaceous meteorites. According to Hoover's article, Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy and other measures show that the microfossils are indigenous to these meteors and are similar to trichomic cyanobacteria and other trichomic prokaryotes such as filamentous sulfur bacteria. In other words, these fossilized bacteria are not Earthly contaminants but are the fossilized remains of organisms which lived in the parent bodies of these meteors, e.g. comets, moons, and other astral bodies.

Hoover's article is plentiful of attractive implications as long as his hypotheses are going to be confirmed. One of the most intriguing possibilities is that life might find its origin in the very ancient past of our Solar System, when myriads of rocks, stardust, and comets were orbiting around the protosun in a chaotic rolling dance. The idea is that the essential elements of life were created in the hearts of comets and asteroids rather than being synthesized in the primordial atmosphere and surface of newborn planets. If this picture is correct, a further astonishing conclusion could be drawn: the process that leads from inorganic to organic matter – i.e. aminoacids, the bricks of every form of life as we know it – is more common and simple than we would have expected. In fact, following Hoover's interpretations of empirical data, we can conceive of the possibility that a considerable amount of organic components were spread out across the universe in the depths of rocky fragments which originated from the massive explosions of dying stars. It is not known, however, how long these rocky formations wandered through the space before landing on the Earth, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, etc., and their satellites.

We know that billions of years ago the Earth and the other planets were subjected to heavy rains of comets and meteorites, which could have provided water and organic materials. The hypothesis that this turbulent period of the Solar System was pivotal for the origin of life on Earth is extremely fascinating. However the existence of alleged biological fossils in meteorites does not rule out the scenario that aminoacids and other organic constituents of living organisms were already present – at least in traces - on our planet. In addition, it is debatable whether the conditions necessary for life were better in the inner core of comets and asteroids or on the terrestrial surface, or even in the depths of the oceans. Moreover, the evidence that the organic material found in meteorites constitutes fossilized biological remnants of microorganisms like bacteria is far from being conclusive. The tests conducted on meteorite samples only prove that elements compatible with life are present in certain rocky fragments fallen on Earth. At present, it is not possible to affirm that comets and asteroids bear germs of life, nor that the organic elements identified were solely produced by metabolic activities of living organisms. Even the comparison between images of terrestrial bacteria and those obtained from the meteorite samples in order to distinguish filaments for motility and globules – possibly identified as heterocysts – is somewhat hazardous.

Arguably, we need stronger evidence to conclude that what has been found in meteorites are fossilized traces of very ancient biological microorganisms. Specifically, we would welcome as less controversial evidence the discovery of protein residuals associated with biological functions, such as metabolic activities. If the globules identified by Hoover are truly fossilized heterocysts, only the discovery of such protein remnants within their structures could resolve the controversy in favor of the alien life beyond any doubt.

The implications that life is everywhere, and that life on Earth may have come from other planets (Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe 2011), is not justified by the relatively small samples on which the analyses were conducted.

Chambers, P. (1999), Life on Mars: The Complete Story. London: Blandford.

Hoover, R.B. (2011), Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

Joseph, R. (2010). Life on Earth, Came From Other Planets. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

15. Cyanobacteria on Terrestrial Meteorites and Stromatolites on Mars
¹ Geologist, Scientific collaborator of Earth Science Department, Florence University. Senior Researcher of CNR IRPI, pensioned. Via L. Repaci snc, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy. ² Biologist, Researcher of CNR, ISAFOM-UOS, Via Cavour, 4/6, 87036 Rende (CS), Italy

The Hoover paper (Hoover, 2011) is quite consistent and properly documented. The paper is very detailed and supported by a lot of high quality images at ultramicroscopic scale. Really the great news of these last findings is to have discovered in CI1 meteorites the remains of some microfossils very close in appearance to terrestrial cyanobacteria. The finding of these microfossils is very important since Hoover found not only “complex filaments”, but also clear fragments of a cyanobacterial mat resembling the typical stromatolite structures (Precambrian Age) on early terrestrial forms of life (Pikuta, see commentary n. 12).

At the beginning of this saga, the possible existence of extraterrestrial life on meteorites was highly debated. Nagy et al. (1961) reported the occurrence of biogenic hydrocarbon in the Orgueil meteorite and, later, described some microstructures similar to microbial life forms on Earth (Nagy et al., 1963). Twenty years after, Engel and Nagy (1982) described some non-racemic aminoacids in the Murchinson meteorite that could be interpreted as possible evidence for a past extraterrestrial life. Fossil evidences of ancient microbial life was, originally, advanced by David McKay et al. (1996) on Martian meteorite ALH84001. McKay’s hypothesis was, later, refuted by other NASA research teams in 1998 (McKay et al., 1998) but some years after was resumed by Robert Folk and Lawrence Taylor (Folk and Taylor, 2002) who stated that the carbonate globules in ALH84001 were fossil nannobacteria associated with Fe-oxide precipitation and, afterwards other researchers found on these carbonate discs a lot of magnetite nanocrystals probably added by biogenic processes (Thomas-Keprta et al., 2009). The latest findings, released by NASA and spread in internet by Spaceflightnow (HYPERLINK "https://spaceflightnow.com"https://spaceflightnow.com) have revealed that, besides ALH84001, there are two additional Martian meteorites, named “Nakhla” and “Yamato 593”, with evident biological signatures of alien life on the Red Planet.

Several reports have been advanced that the apparent microbial structures shown by Hoover may be the result of a contamination process which has affected the meteorites over time (Brasier et al., 2002). At the same time other scientists have pointed out that there are good reasons to believe that there is no contamination. We briefly recall: 1) the accuracy of sampling, sealing and conservation, well documented at least for one of these meteorites (Murchison); 2) the biological features of microbial life in the meteorite was restricted to freshly fractured interior portions of the stones exposed only after cracking and, therefore, with no contact with the terrestrial environment; 3) the short time of at air exposition in comparison to the massive occurrence of cianobacteria; 4) the long time of bacterial coexistence is proved by their permineralisation; 5) the cohesive nature of condrites, generally cracking along new surfaces, as confirmed by the rupture of a pre-existing microfossils; 6) the massive presence of forms of life, not limited to the simple surface of investigation; 7) the absence of such form in a lot of other examined meteorites, over a long time exposed to the air contamination in spite of their natural fracturing. Indeed, the absence of nitrogen as well as the lack of several crucial aminoacids, is a good evidence against the possibility of any terrestrial biological contamination. Brasier (Brasier, see comment n. 9) suggests morphological similarity for some of such forms to the Ambient Inclusion Trail (AIT) and further investigation to exclude their possible abiogenicity. Nevertheless we have to observe that the proposed similarity is roughly referred to the external shape and it seems not supported by their quite different fine microfabric.

At the end, we have to consider that criticism are posed for each single-separate feature, and that most of them are feeble and lay as general statements; as well their altogether convergence is relevant, too and more. Suspects and possibilities are not proves. Then, we are looking forward to the search results deepening proposed by sceptics, in order to prove -without any reasonable doubt- to the scientific readers that their criticisms are right. At the moment considering the careful procedures used for sample’s analysis, the nature and the history of their biological contents, we totally agree with the interpretation given by Hoover in his article.

In fact, in our studies (Rizzo and Cantasano, 2009a; Rizzo and Cantasano, 2009b; Rizzo and Cantasano, 2010; Rizzo and Cantasano, 2011 in print), analyzing a selected set of NASA REM MI imagery shot by Rover “Opportunity”, we have found a lot of similarities, both at microscopic and macroscopic scale, between Mars sediment’s structures and those of terrestrial stromatolites. Similarities include occurrence of microspherules aggregates, somewhere linked in filaments, in sheet, in larger spherules known as “blueberries” and in other massive bodies made by intertwined filaments textures (figure 1). Such possible microbial structures somewhere contain encapsuled aggregates (like those of sheathed colony of cyanobacteria) and other peculiar forms recalling biological structures (as are tubules, threads, chambered bodies ..etc; figs. 2a-c). At larger scale similarity include laminated sediments, regressive sequences, columnar and planar structures. Both laminated sequences, blueberries and other massive bodies could be explained by peculiar planar/spatial microspherules aggregation and/or by their internal growing, whose basilar mechanism pointed out.

Are they other morphological coincidences? Considering manifold parallels at so different scales, they are relevant data and further clear evidences of –still no proved- extraterrestrial life. In fact, we have to consider that our results are based only by morphological evidences on the analysis of microscopic imagery of the rovers. Nevertheless, our scale of work is quite different from those of Hoover investigated samples, because the field of observation range from about 60- 80 micron to 3cm. This is a range of work where the complex form of life are more differentiated and evident in respect to the abiotic ones. We have also to consider that: 1) on the base of Lyell postulate, the sedimentation cannot generates "intertwined filaments"; 2) a secondary texture of postsedimentation mass movement is in contrast with the very thin mm-laminated structures of the same outcroppings. In fact both structures are typical of stromatolites. Should it be considered proved?

The response, considering that the Earth is not the geometrical centre of Universe, at the state of knowledge should be easy and evident, without any reasonable scientific doubt; but it has strong cultural implication. Then, probably, we could have a definitive proof of extraterrestrial life only studying sample return. I suspect that, also in this case, inclusion and microbial contamination will be still questioned.

So, we believe that the music of the Universe plays always with the same first notes and Panspermia (Wickramasinghe, 2011) is a credible theory: microbial life is everywhere and travel trough the cold space. Finally, we believe on the relevance of data convergence about extraterrestrial life and we think that Richard Hoover has taken an important step in that direction.

Brasier, M.D., Green, O.R., Jephcoat, A.P., Kleppe, A.K., Van Kranebdonk, M.J., Lindsay, J.F., Steele, A. and Grassineau, N.V. (2002) Questioning the evidence for Earth’s oldest fossils. Nature 247, 76-81.

Hoover, R. (2011) Fossils of Cianobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites, Journal of Cosmology, 13.

Nagy, B. Meinschein, W.G. and Hennessy, D.J. (1961) Mass Spectroscopic analysis of the Orgueil meteorite: evidence for biogenic hydrocarbons. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 93: 25-35.

Nagy, B., Fredriksson, K., Urey, H.C., Claus, G., Anderson, C.A. and Percy, J. (1963) Electron Probe microanalysis of organized elements in the Orgueil meteorite. Nature 198: 121-125.

Engel, M.H. and Nagy, B. (1982) Distribution and enantiomeric composition of amino acids in the Murchinson meteorite. Nature 296, 837-840.

McKay, D.S., Gibson, Jr, E.K., Thomas-Keptra, K.L., Vali, H., Romanek, C.S., Clemett, S.J., Chillier, X.D.F., Maechling, C. R. and Zare, R. N. (1996) Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001. Science 273 (5277): 924-930.

McKay, G., Mikouchi, T., Schwandt, C. and Lofgren, G. (1998) Fracture fillings in ALH84001. Feldspathic glass: carbonatic and silica. 29th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference held March16–20, 1998 in Houston, Texas. LPI Contribution No. 1998, Abstract no. 1944.

Folk, R. and Taylor, L. (2002) Nannobacterial alteration of pyroxenes in martian meteorite Allan Hills 8400. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 37, 1057–1070.

Thomas-Keprta, K.L., Clemett, S.J., McKay, D.S., Gibson, E.K. and Wentworth, S.J. (2009) Origins of magnetite nanocrystals in Martian meteorite ALH84001. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 73: 6631–6677.

Rizzo, V. and Cantasano, N. (2009a) Possible organosedimentary structures on Mars. International Journal of Astrobiology 8 (4): 267–280.

Rizzo, V. and Cantasano, N. (2009b) There is Life on Mars? HYPERLINK "https://www.lascienzainrete.it/node/1618" www.lascienzainrete.it/node/1618.

Rizzo, V. and Cantasano, N. (2010) Le “Blueberries” ed i sedimenti laminati del pianeta Marte sono strutture biogeniche? Geoitalia, 29: 41-46.

Rizzo, V. and Cantasano, N. (2011) Textures on Mars: evidences of a biogenic environment. Invited Lecture at the Conference “Virginio Schiaparelli and his legacy-On the centenary of his death”, Milano 2010, Memorie SAIT, vol. 82/2, in print.

Schopf, J.W. and Barghoorn, E.S. (1967) Alga-like fossils from the Early Precambrian of South Africa. Science, 156, 508-512.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origin of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

16. Alien Microfossils? Criticism and Analysis
Paolo Pasquinelli, Ph.D.,
Laboratorio di ricerca sociale, Università di Pisa

Over all I appreciate Hoover's impressive work (2011) concerning the fossils of Cyanobacteria in meteorites. However, I cannot accept all the conclusion as some of the results are not what I would have expected or they are not clear from the data. It is my opinion the author should have put a synthetic caption at the bottom of each picture to better identify the contents, even if he explains them in other parts of the text. I would like to give criticism concerning the absence (or undetectable) Nitrogen in the meteorite filaments (see conclusions at pg. 29). The metabolism of Nitrogen in Cyanobacteria which would be expected is evident presence in the meteorite fossil filaments of the bacteria which supposedly resembles Titanospirillum velox. That fact complicates Hoover's arguments (see pg.30) related to the presence of liquid water of comet nuclei as the source for the origins of these putative organisms. I also have a problem with Table IV where the measures are not expressed by the same units. So there are difficulties fully understanding the concentrations, especially for GLY on Carbonaceous Meteorites in comparing to the other classes of Bacteria (living and fossils). Hoover's work is a remarkable achievement. However, I think his findings of what may be fossil Cyanobacteria and other bacteria in meteorites cannot give a definitive answer to the origin of the life in our Planet.

Hoover, R.B. (2011), Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

17. Discovery of Cyanobacteria in Meteorites: Implications for Astrobiology and Cosmology
Frank J. Tipler, Ph.D.
Department of Mathematics and Department of Physics. Tulane Univeristy, New Orleans, LA

Abstract: In 2003, it was predicted that cyanobateria would be found in extraterrestrial locations, indeed at many locations in the Galaxy where liquid water is present. It was argued that cyanobacteria originally evolved on a planet that was destroyed in a supernova explosion before the Earth was formed; a view later echoed and developed by others (Joseph 2009). The discovery of cyanobateria fossils in meteorites would confirm this prediction. Given the likelihood that Hoover (2011) has indeed discovered cyanobacteria in meteorites, what are the implications of this discovery for both one-celled life and intelligent life, existing elsewhere in the universe. And what are the implications for cosmology: the early universe implications, and the ultimate future implications? These issues are addressed in this paper.

Keywords: microfossils, cyanobateria, origin of life, origin of prokaryotes, origin of stars, the early universe, extraterrestial intelligence, ultimate future of the universe, unitarity

Implications In 2003, it was predicted (Tipler 2003) that cyanobateria would be found in extraterrestial environments. The arguments were based on the molecular complexity of cyanobacteria, and the fact that microfossils indistinguishable from modern cyanobacteria had been discovered in cherts 3.5 billion years old. Following William Schopf (1999, p. 98), I concluded that there was insufficient time for such organisms to evolve on the early Earth. If Hoover's interpretation of his observations is correct, then his work confirms my prediction.

However, caution is called for. Schopf devotes two chapters of his book Cradle of Life (1999) to a discussion of the evidence required before one can accept patterns in rocks as microfossils. Schopf recommends that one wait until one has some examples of cells in division before one can truly accept the proposed features as fossil bacteria. So although Hoover has done as much as is possible with his small sample, we cannot yet conclude that he has indeed seen fossil cyanobateria. I say this reluctantly, for I have a very personal interest in Hoover's claim of fossil cyanobacteria being correct.

But I would like to expand on my 2003 argument that we would expect that cyanobacteria evolved outside the Solar System, on a planet long dead. The universe is about 13.8 billion years old (Jarosik et al 2011). Since our Earth is only 4.5 billion years old, it is about one-third the age of the universe. We have not yet observed the first generation of stars; the Webb space telescope, scheduled for launch in 2014, should allow us to see these objects for the first time. The general opinion, which I share, is that the first star generation formed about 500 million years after the Big Bang (redshift z =10). I would expect the second generation of stars, with sufficient heavy elements present to permit earthlike planet formation, to exist within one billion years after the first generation, so the first earthlike planets should have formed by roughly 11 billion years after the Big Bang, or about 6 billion years before the Solar System was formed. So there would be 6 billion additional years for cyanobacteria to evolve from its non-living precursors. The period before the Earth's formation had a supernova rate far above the rate today, and there is evidence that the Solar System material is the result of several sequences of supernovae. It is plausible that one of these supernovae blasted cyanobacteria off the planet upon which they evolved (Joseph 2009; Tipler, 2003). In 2003, I pointed out (Tipler 2003) that cyanobacteria are resistant to cosmic radiation so such organisms could survive a trip from their planet of origin to the early Solar System. We would therefore expect to see cyanobacteria in all Solar System locations where there is liquid water, as Hoover (2011) points out.

The very fact that cyanobacteria are so resistant to radiation is evidence that they evolved in an environment where the radiation level was much higher than on Earth today (Wickramasinghe 2011), or even the Earth of 3.9 billion years ago, the time when the Earth became a habitable planet (Schopf 1999). The universe of 11 billion years ago would have been such an environment, as star formation and death would be much more rapid then than now.

If the cyanobacteria were ejected from their native planet several billion years ago, they could very well be on water planets throughout the Galaxy; all life in the Galaxy would be descendants of the cyanobacteria that evolved billions of years before the Earth formed.

I have repeated argued (see Barrow and Tipler 1986 for a detailed list of references) that the ubiquity of one-celled life does not imply that intelligent life is widespread in the cosmos. In fact, the leading evolutionary biologists insist that extraterrestrial intelligent (ETI) must be quite rare (Barrow and Tipler 1986, Tipler 2003). However, I have argued (Tipler 2003) that the laws of physics do not allow us to be completely alone in the universe: intelligent life is required to evolve on planets roughly a billion light years apart today.

Notice that "evolution required" means that evolution of ETI is inevitable, though very rare (we would be alone in the Galaxy). The great evolutionary biologist Simon Conway Morris (2003) has been also been making this argument, but my argument is entirely from physics. I have recently shown (Tipler 2011) that Schrödinger's equation is a special case of the Hamilton- Jacobi equation, with the square of the modulus of the wave function being, not a probability density, but a number density: the density of universes in the multiverse of Many-Worlds quantum mechanics. In fact the Schrödinger equation follows from the requirement that the Hamilton-Jacobi be globally deterministic. That is, from the requirement that "God does not play dice with the universe."

This means that the fundamental quantum mechanical requirement of unitarity says that the present state of the universe can be regarded as determined by the ultimate future state of the universe. This future determinism is complementary to the usual determinism of the present state of the universe by the ultimate past (Big Bang) state.

The reason from physics why intelligent life cannot be non-existent or unique is that the very consistency of the laws of physics requires the presence of several independently evolved intelligent species in the future. I have described why this is so elsewhere (Tipler 2005). Let me here point out the advantage of having a considerable number of planets in this Galaxy upon which life has a head start, as Hoover's results suggests may be the case. Though the evolution of the multiverse is deterministic, the actual single universe in which we find ourselves gives the impression of being dominated by random processes. I do not know why this is the case. But given that this is the case, if the evolution of life to intelligence is inevitable, then it would be more consistent with the appearance of randomness if many planets have a chance rather than just one, this Earth.

Hoover's result suggests that indeed there are ecologies outside of this fragile Earth.

Barrow, J. D. and Tipler, F. J. (1986). The Anthropic Cosmological Principle. Oxford University Press, Oxford (UK).

Conway Morris, S. (2003) Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (UK).

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites: implications to life on comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13, in press.

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Joseph, R. (2009). Life on Earth, came from other planets. Journal of Cosmology, 1, 1-50.

Schopf, W. (1999). Cradle of Life: the Discovery of Earth's Earliest Fossils. Princeton University Press, Princeton US.

Tipler, F. J. (2003). Intelligent life in cosmology. International Journal of Astrobiology, 2, 141- 148.

Tipler, F. J. (2005). Structure of the world from pure numbers, Reports on Progress in Physics 68, 897-964.

Tipler, F. J. (2011). Nonlocality as evidence for a multiverse cosmology. Journal of Cosmology, 13, in press.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

18. Extraterrestrial Life, Syntropy and Water
Antonella Vannini, Ph.D., and Ulisse Di Corpo
Lungotevere degli Artigiani 32 – 00153 ROME - ITALY

Astrobiology is a relatively new field of science that both searches for and tries to understand life beyond Earth, as well as how life began on Earth. Possible extraterrestrial life raises profound questions for science, religion and society. Consequently strong feelings are elicited by the announcement of any evidence which supports the possibility of life outside Earth.

Scholars are divided into two main schools of thought: evolutionists who consider nature as constantly changing and creationists who consider nature substantially fixed and rooted in the biblical Genesis and the Aristotelian philosophy. The debate between these two schools of thought is still in progress and creationists are becoming increasingly more scientific, spotting contradictions in the evolutionists' model. For example creationists underline that according to ordinary thermodynamics the probability that 2000 atoms are combined in the design of the smallest protein molecule is equal to 0.489 x 10^-600, that is 0 followed by 600 zeros and then by the significant digits 489. Based on this calculation and considering the entire time since the Big Bang and all the atoms in the universe, the probability of spontaneous formation of the smallest protein molecule is practically nil.

A third school of thought was started in 1941 by the mathematician Luigi Fantappiè. Studying the properties of the negative solution of the Klein-Gordon equation, Fantappiè suggested that life is a general law of the Universe which requires water. Whereas the evolutionist and creationist models are not at ease with the possibility of extraterrestrial life, Fantappiè's model provides a theoretical framework which can help to better understand Hoover's findings, with special reference to the role played by water. Related to this, is the astrobiological model of panspermia (Joseph 2010; Wickramasinghe, 2011), which Hoover alludes to in his paper.

Briefly, Klein-Gordon's relativistic wave equation provides two solutions: retarded waves which diverge from the past into the future, and advanced waves which diverge backwards in time, from the future to the past. In the 1930s the advanced waves solution was rejected, since it was considered incompatible with the concept of causality. In 1941, while studying the mathematical properties of advanced and retarded waves, Fantappiè noted that retarded waves entail an increase in thermodynamic entropy (en=apart, tropos=tendency), which leads to dissipation of energy, increase of homogeneity and disorder, whereas advanced waves are governed by a property opposite to entropy which leads to concentration of energy, differentiation, order and growth of structures. Fantappiè named this property "syntropy" (syn=together, tropos=tendency) and noted that its qualities coincided with the qualities of living systems, arriving in this way at the conclusion that life feeds on advanced waves.

Considering the mathematical properties of retarded waves, which obey classical causation and propagate from the past to the future, and of advanced waves which obey final causation and propagate from the future to the past, Fantappiè noted that in diverging systems, such as our expanding universe, entropy prevails, time flows forwards and advanced waves would be impossible. On the contrary in converging systems, such as black holes, syntropy prevails, time flows backwards and retarded waves would be impossible. Finally in systems balanced between diverging and converging forces, such as atoms, time would be unitary, past, present and future would coexist and advanced and retarded waves would interact.

Consequently the syntropy model suggests that life originates at the quantum level, since at this level advanced waves can take place, and that life structures would rapidly grow into the macroscopic level, governed by the opposite law of entropy. In order to survive the destructive effects of entropy, life needs to acquire syntropy (advanced waves) from the quantum level and water would provide the mechanism. This conclusion was reached considering that water shows anomalous properties which recall the cohesive qualities of syntropy, for example:

The anomalous properties of water have been explained as a consequence of the hydrogen bridge, which was discovered in 1920 by Maurice Huggins. Hydrogen atoms share a state which is both at the quantum and at the macroscopic level providing a bridge for advanced waves and syntropy to flow from the micro to the macro level.

Water is not the only molecule with hydrogen bridges. Also ammonia and fluoric acid form hydrogen bridges and these molecules show anomalous properties similar to water. However, water produces a higher number of hydrogen bridges and this predicates the high cohesive properties of water which link molecules in wide dynamic structures.

The hydrogen bridge mechanism allows syntropy to extend from the micro to the macro level, turning water into an essential molecule for life; water is the lymph of life, feeding life with syntropy. According to the syntropy model, water is the most important molecule for life, which is necessary for the origin and evolution of any biological structure. Consequently, if life would ever be discovered beyond Earth water would necessarily be present.

Hoover's findings are incompatible with the creationist model of life based on biblical Genesis and Aristotelian philosophy and seem to be incompatible with the evolutionist model which considers life the product of highly improbable conditions. On the contrary they support Fantappiè's model which regards life as evidence of a universal law which stems from the negative solution of the Klein-Gordon equation: the law of syntropy. The law of syntropy expects life to be present whenever liquid water is available, also when conditions are extreme, such as on comets and asteroids.

Fantappiè L. (1942) Sull'interpretazione dei potenziali anticipati della meccanica ondulatoria e su un principio di finalità che ne discende. Rend. Acc. D'Italia, , 4(7).

Joseph, R. (2010). Life on Earth, Came From Other Planets. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

Vannini A. and Di Corpo U. (2009). A Retrocausal Model of Life, in Filters and Reflections. Perspective on Reality, ICRL Press, Princeton, NJ, USA.

Vannini A. and Di Corpo U. (2010). Collapse of the wave function? Pre-stimuli heart rate differences. NeuroQuantology, 8(4): 550-563.

Vannini A. and Di Corpo U. (2011). Entropy and Syntropy. Causality and retrocausality in physics and life sciences: the Vital Needs Model. Lambert, Germany.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

19. Life Everywhere!
Pushkar Ganesh Vaidya,
Indian Astrobiology Research Centre (IARC)

Abstract: Richard Hoover of NASA has discovered evidence of microfossils similar to Cyanobacteria, in freshly fractured slices of the interior surfaces of the Alais, Ivuna, and Orgueil CI1 carbonaceous meteorites. Based on Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) and other measures, Hoover has concluded they are indigenous to these meteors and are similar to trichomic cyanobacteria and other trichomic prokaryotes such as filamentous sulfur bacteria. He concludes these fossilized bacteria are not Earthly contaminants but are the fossilized remains of living organisms which lived in the parent bodies of these meteors, e.g. comets, moons, and other astral bodies (JournalofCosmology.com March, 2011).

Keywords: Panspermia, Stardust, Solar Nebula,

1. How did life appear on Ancient Meteors? It is noteworthy that Hoover (2011) concludes that the filaments found embedded in the CI1 carbonaceous meteorites are recognizable as representatives of the filamentous Cyanobacteriaceae and associated trichomic prokaryotes. Having closely examined his evidence, I can see no credible reason to dispute these findings. Thus, there is a similarity between Earth life and life discovered in meteors which may have had their source in comets, icy moons, or on other planets. So how did life appear in these meteors?

The possibilities are:

How might we reconcile these differing possibilities?

2. Stardust Findings

On analysis of the comet 81P/Wild 2 samples (captured by Stardust spacecraft in 2004), materials like Olivine, Calcium Aluminum Inclusions (CAIs) (Sandford et al. 2006) which formed at extremely high temperatures and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) which formed at very low temperatures were found (Sandford et al. 2008).

This indicated mixing on the grandest scales between the coldest and hottest regions of the solar nebula (Brownlee et al. 2006). Therefore, if microorganisms were present in the solar Nebula, as required by the panspermia hypothesis (Wickramasinghe 2011; Joseph 2009) then they were well 'mixed up' and were incorporated into every body of the solar system. Thereby life did not need to hitch a ride on comets to reach various solar system bodies, provided it survived the turbulent mixing (Vaidya 2009).

Conclusion

I can see no reason to dispute the evidence indicating the presence of microfossils similar to cyanobacteria.

Hoover (2011) raises the possibility the parent bodies for these meteors were comets, which supports the Hoyle-Wickramasinghe theories. However, it is just as likely that life does not require incubation within comets but rather survives right through the turbulent processes of planetary formation to the time that a planetary body becomes habitable (Joseph 2009; Vaidya 2009), a most extreme of extreme possibilities, but a possibility nonetheless.

Fossils are not life, but indications of past life. There are good reasons to suspect that Mars, Europa, Enceladus, Titan and other potential extraterrestrial habitats may harbor life. If these life forms are similar across the solar system, then we can draw two conclusions: 1) Life must have been distributed throughout this solar system, and 2) Life is everywhere!

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Sandford et al. (2006) Organics Captured from Comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust Spacecraft, Science 314, 1720- 1724.

Sandford et al (2008) Organics in the samples returned from comet 81P/Wild 2 by the Stardust Spacecraft. Organic Matter in Space Proceedings IAU Symposium 251, 299-308.

Vaidya, P.G. (2009). Stardust Findings - Implications for Panspermia. Aperion Vol 16. No. 2. pp 225-228.

Wickramasinghe, N.C., Wainwright, M., Narlikar, J.V., Rajaratnam, P., Harris, M.J., and Lloyd, D. (2003) Progress towards the vindication of panspermia. Astrophys.Sp.Sci, 283, 403-413.

Wickramasinghe, C. (2011). The Biological Big Bang: Panspermia and the Origins of Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

20. Let There be Life: Thermosynthesizers and Hoover's Meteorites. CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites Should be Tested for the Presence of Thermosynthesizers
Anthonie W.J. Muller, Ph.D.
Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, 1098XH Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Abstract Hoover’s observations inside CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites of filaments resembling cyanobacteria by ESEM and FESEM electron microscopy (Hoover, 2011) suggest that living organisms have existed or maybe still exist in the outer Solar System. The dimness of sunlight and the coldness of the exterior surface of celestial bodies far from the Sun argue however against the presence of photosynthesizers such as cyanobacteria on celestial bodies there. Organisms both in the inner surfaces and at the outer surface of these bodies could however live by thermosynthesis, a previously proposed theoretical mechanism for biological free energy gain from thermal cycling (Muller 1983, 1985, 1993, 1995a; Muller & Schulze-Makuch, 2006a) or a thermal gradient (Muller, 2009). Thermosynthesizers within CI1 meteorites may be detectable by cultivation in artificial thermal gradients.

Light is commonly assumed to be the only biological primary energy source. From this requirement of light by life the concept of the Habitable Zone of a star has been derived. Use of this primary energy source would call for the temperature of a planet’s surface to lie in the range between the boiling and freezing points of water (Huang 1959, 1960).

In theory heat could also be a biological primary energy source (Muller 1983, 1985, 1993, 1995a, 2009; Muller & Schulze-Makuch, 2006a). The proposed thermosynthesis biomachinery resembles the enzymes and membranes that sustain photosynthesis, which in fact may have evolved from it (Muller 1995b). Thermosynthesis could be driven by the thermal cycling experienced by suspension in a convection cell such as a volcanic hot spring. Its simple machinery makes it suitable for the origin of life. It resembles processes and devices well-known from engineering, such as thermal desorption (Muller & Schulze-Makuch, 2006b; Aristov et al., 2008), capacitor based energy converters (Sklar, 2005), the rubber heat engine (Mullen et al. 1975) and thermoelectricity (Quickenden & Mua, 1995).

According to the thermosynthesis theory, chemiosmosis (Mitchell, 1979) preceded fermentation. In contrast, perhaps because fermentation was the first biological energy conversion process elucidated, most scientists seem to assume that fermentation preceded chemiosmosis. As it makes use of an enzyme-membrane combination, today’s chemiosmosis indeed seems at first sight more complex than fermentation, but the latter requires multiple enzymes and an organic high-energy substrate such as glucose, which also should be accounted for. The thermosynthesis theory identifies the very first enzyme as the β subunit of the F₁ moiety of ATP Synthase, where today ATP is generated during chemiosmosis. Using a thermal variation of Boyer’s binding change mechanism (Boyer, 1993) this first enzyme would during thermal cycling have had a general substrate-condensing ability. The emergence of the RNA World, including a set of transfer RNAs that sustains the genetic code, has been modeled based on this single first enzyme (Muller, 2005).

Thermosynthesis niches can be pointed out during part of their history on all celestial bodies of the Solar System, because these bodies may undergo (1) cyclic surface heating by cyclic illumination through sunlight due to the rotation, (2) convection or (3) may contain a thermal gradient across the outer surface (Muller, 2003). Thermal cycling by rotation in the sunlight must occur on the surface of meteorites, asteroids and comets. Many celestial bodies are today or must in the past have been strongly heated internally by radiogenic heat or by tidal forces. A thermal gradient is plausible on the surface of all solid celestial bodies outside the ‘frost line’ of the Solar System, about 3-4 AUs from the Sun (Lebofsky, 1975).

Suspension in a convecting fluid (gas or liquid) also causes thermal cycling. Convection is plausible in liquid water underneath ice in polar craters on Mercury and the Moon where the interior is shaded from the sun, the surface ice on Mars, and on Europa and similar moons in the outer Solar System. The now evaporated ocean of Venus probably convected. Ground water can also convect; the parent body of many carbonaceous meteorites was modified by convecting ground water (Palguta et al., 2010). Convection is obvious in the atmosphere of the giant outer planets and in the Sun. In the latter, stable molecules become possible at the end of its active lifetime: thermosynthesizing organisms may emerge in the cooled Sun (Jones, 1997). It would also expand, which could send thermosynthesizers into outer space, and thus effect a key step in panspermia (Joseph 2009; Wickramasinghe 2011).

The organisms that yielded the fossils observed by Hoover may have made use of thermosynthesis (1) while they lived in the parent object of the meteorites, (2) while the meteorites moved through outer space and rotated in the sunlight after the parent body had disintegrated, and (3) after the meteorites landed on Earth near the poles, in the thermal gradient between surface ice and the atmosphere. It should therefore be investigated whether these carbonaceous meteorites contain thermosynthesizers.

Samples taken from the meteorites could be placed in a thermal gradient or a thermally cycling apparatus (for instance a PCR machine (Muller, 2006) with food and light being absent. Preliminary evidence of thermosynthesis could consist of an increase in CO₂ fixation and/or uptake of radioactive labeled phosphate or carbon in the presence of a thermal gradient, which is easily constructed from household cooking devices or aquariums. In many laboratories it should be possible to do such experiments which involve standard biochemical methods on the side.

If preliminary experiments were positive, extensive additional experiments would be required, with the main challenge being the exclusion of other possible explanations of the observed results.

Experimental confirmation of the presence of thermosynthetic organisms in the carbonaceous meteorites studied by Hoover would resolve many questions on the emergence and evolution of early life.

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Hoover, R.B. (2011). Fossils of cyanobacteria in CI1 carbonaceous meteorites: implications to life on comets, Europa and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13, in the press.

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Muller, A.W.J. (2006). A search for thermosynthesis: starvation survival in thermally cycled bacteria. Available on the internet in the physics archives: https://www.arxiv.org/physics/0604084

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21. Our Cosmic Ancestry
Prasanta Mukhopadhyay, Ph.D.
Global Geoenergy Research Limited Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada

Richard Hoover’s publication on “Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorite and its implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus” is a wonderful thought provoking article that will enlighten a new frontier of human knowledge on the origin of life. This articles implies that the organic origin of life possibly started somewhere within the Cosmos possibly long before the existence of the Solar System. His data may also suggest that the life has possibly been transported to various planets at different periods of time in the universe via various Comets. Hoover’s data on various geochemical parameters and the species variability of the Cyanobacteria and other prokaryotes (sulfur bacteria) within various CI1 carbonaceous meteorites also indicate the relationship between the primitive bacterial clusters, temperature variability and the major oil and gas discovery within the Mars and Saturn’s moons. This also stresses the organic origin of these hydrocarbons. Richard’s article possibly interlinks the hydrated Feminerals, water, hydrocarbons, and microbial communities within the Universe.

22. A Compelling Argument: The "Fossils" are Extra-Terrestrial in Origin
Paul P. Sipiera, Ph.D.
President - Planetary Studies Foundation Galena, Illinois, Planets.org

My academic training and scientific research is in planetary geology, specifically in the petrology of stony meteorites and igneous rocks and will restrict my comments to that which pertains to the meteorite portion of the paper and Richard Hoover's analytical methods.

For well over a hundred years scientists have been aware of the biochemical nature of carbonaceous chondrites and the potential role that they may have played in the origin of life. The presence of numerous organic compounds combined with low temperature hydrous minerals strongly suggests an environment conducive for the existence of life. This is not true of all carbonaceous chondrites, but generally pertains to the CI and CM types. Scientists have long speculated that these meteorites probably had their origin in a distant location in the solar system perhaps in the Kuiper Belt or beyond. Recent direct studies of the chemical composition of comets and spectral observation of certain asteroids seem to confirm this belief. Other possible points of origin for carbonacoeus chondrites could be the water-rich moons of Jupiter or Saturn. Most scientists agree that carbonaceous chondrites probably played a very important role in the origin of life on Earth (Russell 2011). The obvious question still remains, how did organic chemistry transition into a living organism? Richard Hoover's research paper does not attempt to answer that question, but it clearly offers some possible locations as to where that transition may have taken place.

In contrast to the 1996 announcement of possible fossil bacterial found in the Martian meteorite ALHA 84001 (McKay, et al. 1996), Hoover's (2011) suggestions are certainly more logical and representative of an environment that primordial life would most likely favor. ALHA 84001, on the other hand, is a deep-seated igneous rock that was subjected to a later higher temperature hydro-thermal event that may have implanted the proposed "bacteria" into the host rock (McKay, et al. 1996). Both are certainly possible scenarios for life-forms to exist in, but the lower-temperature hydrous environment seems more suitable for the initial transition to life given the primitive nature of carbonaceous chondrites.

The origin of life is one of the most perplexing questions remaining to modern science (Russell 2011). It is clear from the direct evidence sampled from comets and meteorites, combined with spectral analysis of asteroids and inter-stellar dust clouds, that the chemistry for life is present throughout the galaxy. For over fifty years the SETI project has searched for evidence of intelligent life, but has met with no success. This is not surprising since higher forms of life in the universe may be the exception rather than the rule. Most scientists agree that microbial life will most likely dominate since it can exist across a wide-range of contrasting environments.

Richard Hoover's findings certainly support this concept. Hoover's research has presented compelling photographic and chemical evidence that microbial "fossils" are present in certain carbonaceous chondrites. Although carbonaceous chondrites are among the oldest (4.6 billion years) material in the solar system, no implication is made for a time-line for these fossils. The transition from organic chemistry to life may have taken place relatively early in the parent-body's history, or much later. This will remain a mystery until science can explore many more locations in our solar system. For the present we only have the Earth to use as a frame of reference with life first appearing around four billion years ago. The theory that primordial life may have been introduced to Earth through cometary and meteorite impacts rather than an "in-situ" occurrence is viable and deserves further consideration.

I have been familiar with Richard Hoover's research for over twelve years and have provided him with several of the specimens he has used in his studies. During that time Hoover did not limit his research to just the CI and CM carbonaceous chondrites but conducted similar investigations on all types of carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites. In most cases the results proved negative. It was only in the relatively rare cases, in the meteorites with the highest potential, that he found evidence of fossil bacteria. Many of Hoover's critics claim that his findings are most likely the result of a contamination process that has affected the meteorite over time. I personally find this contamination accusation hard to believe since his data comes from an internal portion, exposed only after cracking, that would not have been in contact with the surface. Hoover's findings are further supported by his examination of the 1969 Murchison meteorite, a fresh fall, in contrast to the more historic falls of Orguiel and Ivuna. In several cases Hoover examined "fresh" 1969 Murchison samples that were placed in a sealed container and were not opened until his examination. Similar findings were made in both the older falls and in the fresher Murchison samples. This analytical procedure, combined with the fact that the proposed "fossils" had been subjected to a permineralization process, makes the contamination issue irrelevant.

In conclusion, I believe that Richard Hoover has made every attempt to provide a contamination-free sampling of the various meteorites he analyzed and has presented a compelling argument to support his theory that these "fossils" are extra-terrestrial in origin. Definitive proof of extra-terrestrial life, whether intelligent or microbial, will certainly be a paramount achievement for the scientist who makes that claim. I believe Richard Hoover has taken a significant step in that direction.

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13

McKay, D.S., et al. (1996). "Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001". Science 273 (5277): 924–930.

Russell, M. (2011). Origins, Abiogenesis, and the Search for Life. Cosmology Science Publishers, Cambridge.

23. Second Copernican Revolution. The CI and ALH84001 are Linked by Isotopes and Chemistry
John E. Brandenburg Ph.D.
Senior Propulsion Scientist, Orbital Technologies Corporation, 1212 Fourier Drive, Madison Wisconsin 53717

There are two problems that are apparent to me in the public criticisms of Dr. Hoover’s work (Hoover 2011), who is a careful scientist and may have made a very important discovery.

1. The repeated statement by Hoover’s critics that the CI carbonaceous chondrite material is 2% water, making it sound reasonable to find Earth bacteria deep within them is misleading. The CI is composed of dried clay and dry, water soluble, sulfates. Thus, the water spoken of is water of hydration. The CI are bone dry and some of the sulfates within them have been dry for 4.5 billion years, which how their radiometric age was established. (MacDougall and Lugmair (1984). The frequent mention of the water content of the CI gives the impression that these meteorites are a 'warm wet place' that would be expected to attract algae looking for a place to live. The exact opposite is the case: algae cannot live in the center of these meteorites, there is no useable water and certainly no sunlight. The only way large amounts of algae can get inside them is that they were trapped there when the clay dried on the parent body of the CI. If scanning electron microscopes show algal bodies imbedded in this bone dry material, they most have been there the last time it was wet, 4.5 Billion years ago.

2. There is an "elephant in the room" that goes unmentioned by Hoover’s critics because its implications are so vast: The isotopic and chemical connection between ALH84001, the "life Rock" (McKay, et al. (1996) is strong. ALH80001 has distinct oxygen, chromium and nitrogen isotopes, these are matched by the CI. The CI and ALH84001 may have come from the same place as they have the same age and sampled the same chemical environment (Brandenburg, 2011). In particular Brunnerite, a ferro-magesian carbonate that forms only under reducing conditions is found in any quantity in only two types of meteorites, CI s and ALH84001. CIs are hydrated clays that dessicated, where broken up by low velocity impacts ( no melt glass), and recemented together by calcium and other sulfates , they also have small fragments of lava , olivines and pyroxenes cemented within them with solar flare tracks, so the CI had to have been regolith material . However, they are heavily water altered and have no sign of hypervelocity impact, unlike any other chondrite, so they existed in a velocity buffered environment. The simplest way for this to occur is that they were regolith formed under an atmosphere on a large body. As further evidence of this, the CI clay clasts have a distinct internal layering as if they formed in heavy gravity field.

ALH84001 is a lava rock with a seam of ferroan-carbonate in it full of organic matter and possible fossils. The ALH84001 and the CI are almost the same age 4.5 Billion years old. ALH84001 is clearly Martian, by its oxygen and chromium isotopes signature shared with its other younger Mars meteorites. Therefore the CI may be Martian too (Brandenburg, 1996, 2011).

Therefore Hoover may not have shown that life started or is present in the asteroid belt, an unlikely place for life. Rather, he may have found supporting evidence for life on Early Mars , a warm wet place like Earth at the same time period where life is known to have also originated. Mars and Earth had essentially the same conditions at the time ALH84001 originated, and there is therefore no scientific reason to believe life should not have started on Mars if it started on Earth.

Finding bacterial fossils in a rock from Mars has been reported before, and while controversial, is not considered unreasonable. Hoover has found now them in the CI. Of course, not to confuse the issue, what Hoover found is obvious evidence of cyanobacteria and what appear to be cyanobacteria mats. These are not "nano-bacteria" as was the case for ALH84001. Nevertheless, the CI, based on the isotopes and chemistry, could also be from Early Mars (Brandenburg, 2011). Thus, coupled with the early Viking experiments which gave positive readings suggestive of life (Levin 2010), and putative evidence of possible microfossils, Hoover's evidence may be a further indication that there was once life on Mars. However, even if the Mars hypothesis is rejected, what should not be rejected is the clear evidence of ancient microbial life in the CI.

We face a Second Copernican Revolution, the demotion of humanity from being the master of the center of the biological universe, to being just one other living speck of dust in a cosmos full of other living specks of dust. The emotional impact of this all is not to be underestimated, and thus it is not surprising that the "bar of evidence" for extraterrestrial life is constantly being raised. Raise it high enough and it becomes a roof, and you can hide under it, but from what? Human survival in the long term requires us to face the truth about the cosmos, that we are not alone. A living cosmos requires things of us, that a dead one does not.

Brandenburg J. E., (1996), Mars as the Parent Body of the CI Carbonaceous Chondrites, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23,9, p.961-964. HYPERLINK "https://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LPSC98/pdf/1728.pdf" www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/LPSC98/pdf/1728.pdf

Brandenburg J. E., (2011). “Life and Death on Mars : The New Mars Synthesis” . In Press.

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13

MacDougall J.D.and Lugmair G.W.(1984), Early solar system aqueous activity: Sr isotope evidence from the Orgueil CI meteorite, Nature, 307, 249-251.

McKay, D.S., et al. (1996). "Search for Past Life on Mars: Possible Relic Biogenic Activity in Martian Meteorite ALH84001". Science 273 (5277): 924–930.

24. Definitive Signatures Would Be Helpful, But Difficult to Obtain
Tore Straume, Ph.D.,
NASA Ames Research Center, Mt. View, CA

The Hoover (2011) paper presents results of carefully performed electron microscopic evaluations of structures within freshly fractured carbonaceous meteorites that are claimed to be fossils of extraterrestrial cyanobacteria. The results are obtained by an experienced microscopist hence the shapes of the structures observed are likely to be as described. However, the observations do not definitively demonstrate that the structures are from cyanobacteria.

Given the potential significance of these observations it would be important to know whether there are analytical methods available that could determine if the microstructures observed are actually from cyanobacteria or simply shapes that have the appearance of cyanobacteria. And if they are cyanobacteria, are they of terrestrial or extraterrestrial origin.

One analytical method that should be explored is accelerator mass spectrometry, i.e., are there isotopic signatures measurable today using accelerator mass spectrometry that could discriminate among these possibilities? This would be a real challenge and may not be feasible, but should be evaluated by experts in the field such as Dr. Nishiizumi of UC Berkeley and Dr. Caffee of Purdue who have used AMS extensively to study cosmogenic nuclide signatures in meteorites and other extraterrestrial materials using very small samples.

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

25. The Evidence is Not Convincing: Review of Fossils of Cyanobacteria in C11 Carbonaceous Meteorites.
Rosie Redfield, Ph.D.,
Dept. of Zoology, University of British Columbia Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z3 Canada

What Hoover did: Hoover (2011) fractured tiny comet-derived meteorites (0.1 - 0.6 g) from two events and examined the freshly broken surfaces. He claims to have observed structures that are remnants of cyanobacteria.

These meteorites are of a special very rare type (only 9 are known). They are about 20% water, and soft enough to cut with a knife. They mainly consist of minerals cemented together with magnesium sulfate ('Epsom salts'). They come from asteroids and comets, not planets like the Alan Hills meteorite from Mars. Hooper's reasoning that they come mainly from comets seems reasonable to me.

They contain quite a bit of organic (carbon-based) material, but I don't know if this differs significantly from the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons known to be present in comets. It's true that PAHs found on Earth are usually biological in origin (think of the tarry crud that accumulates on your barbeque grill), but that doesn't mean that PAHs from space have biological origins.

An important concern with this kind of study is contamination with terrestrial organisms before examination. He doesn't say how the meteorites have been stored before he obtained them, nor how the surfaces of the meteorites were treated before being fractured and examined. He doesn't say how they were fractured - might they have been cut with a scalpel blade or just pressed on until they crumbled? He says that the tools were flame- sterilized, but not what the tools were or how they were used.

He used two examination techniques. FESEM is field emission scanning electron microscopy - this seems to be a higher-resolution form of scanning electron microscopy (SEM), with the usual risks of artefacts. The fractured surfaces were not coated with anything before being analyzed - I don't know what effect this might have. The other technique is energy-dispersive X- ray analysis - I gather that this is an add-on to SEM that can scan a specimen and report on the abundance of specific atoms at different positions. Its results can be reported as the distribution of atoms at a particular position or as an image of the specimen, shaded to show the varying density of a particular atom.

Results He shows an image and analysis of one filament from the Ivuna meteorite. It has more carbon than the surrounding material but no detectable nitrogen or phosphorus.

He bolsters his claim that it's a bacterium by showing an image of the giant bacterium Titanospirillum and an image of another filament from the meteorite. His claim that the sulfur granules in this second filament are like those of Titanospirilum is weakened by the very high sulfur in the surrounding material. And although this filament is similar in size and shape to Titanospirillum, the other filament is about 15 times smaller.

The image he shows of an inner surface of the Orgueil meteorite has more filaments (no attempt is made at quantitation). These are more complex in structure and fairly similar to each other, suggesting that they were formed by a single kind of process.

The atomic analysis is not at all convincing. He claims that different parts of the filament have different composition, but doesn't present any control analysis of the variability of the measurements or of the background values for positions away from the filaments. He claims that the atom-density scans show enrichment of carbon and oxygen in the filaments, but this looks very weak to me - the only strong signals are for magnesium and sulfur. Again there is no detectable nitrogen or phosphorus.

He spends a lot of text discussing the morpohlogical similarities of these filaments to cyanobacteria, but I don't regard these similarities as worth anything. Filamentous bacteria are very morphologically diverse, and additional variations in appearance are likely to result from inconsistent preparation for electron microscopy. It's probably pretty easy to find a bacterial image that resembles any fibrous structure. In the absence of any statistical evidence to the contrary, it's prudent to assume that such similarities are purely coincidental.

The author tacks on quite a bit of other less-than-compelling information intended to support his claim that life from space is plausible. For example, he shows photos of colonies of coloured microorganisms to support his argument that the colours seen on the surfaces of Europa and Enceladus are biological in origin.

Bottom line: The Ivuna meteorite sample showed a couple of micron-scale squiggles, one of which contained about 2.5-fold more carbon than the background. One of the five Orguil samples had at least one patch of clustered fibers; these contained more sulfur and magnesium than the background, and less silicon. As evidence for life this is no better than that presented by McKay's group for the ALH84001 Martian meteorite in 1996.

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.

26. Implications for the Origins of Life in the Universe.
Carl H. Gibson, Ph.D.,
Depts. of MAE and SIO, UCSD, La Jolla CA, USA

The Hoover article suggesting CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites contain clear evidence of fossils of extraterrestrial cyanobacteria (Journal of Cosmology, 13) has not convinced all Commentators (eg. Dr. Redfield in #25) that "life from space is plausible". Not everyone has Hoover's expertise on terrestrial cyanobacterial morphology to draw such conclusions.

However, the implications of Hoover's results are profound in the context of abundant new evidence suggesting primordial origins of life and water oceans in the universe, hosted by planets as the dark matter of galaxies. The Hoyle/Wickramasinghe cometary panspermia hypothesis is strongly supported by hydrogravitational dynamics cosmology HGD, Gibson/Schild (2011). According to HGD cosmology, the entire mass of the plasma produced by big bang nucleosynthesis was converted to earth-mass planets in trillion planet clumps only 300,000 years after the big bang.

If one accepts this result of HGD cosmology, early life will promptly form and be distributed on cosmic scales by the enormous numbers of planets produced at this plasma-gas phase transition. All stars form within the clumps due to frictional mergers of H-He gas planets. All stars die by over accretion of the planets, causing supernovae and the production of life chemicals C, N, O, S, Fe, Si, Ca, K etc. that are distributed to the remaining planets in the dense (protoglobularstarcluster PGC) clumps. The highly reducing atmospheres of the hot primordial gas planets will reduce the oxides expected from supernovae, giving massive water oceans at time 2 million years when the water reaches critical temperature (647 K). This solves the mystery of metallic cores observed in solar system planets like Earth, Mercury etc. It also explains the massive water jets observed by the Herschel space observatory in star forming regions of the Galaxy.

All the new infrared telescopes support the HGD cosmology prediction/observation that the dark matter of galaxies is planets in clumps. All the improved ground based telescopes are showing new exo-planets on their way to mergers with stars.

Cometary panspermia with HGD cosmology (and its 10^80 merging planets) makes primordial life formation inevitable in a cosmic soup of communicating oceans. In contrast, Cometary Panspermia with standard LCDMHC cosmology and its few late planets is virtually impossible. This explains the many decades of skepticism and censorship Hoyle and Wickramasinghe endured during their lonely fight to show, correctly, that we are not alone in the universe and have not been for nearly 14 billion years. Hoover's paper strongly supports a scenario where life has existed throughout the cosmos for nearly all time.

Hoover is finally getting support for his conclusions from another element of NASA. Dr. Michael Callahan of NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. states, "For the first time, we have three lines of evidence that together give us confidence these DNA building blocks actually were created in space." Callahan is lead author of a paper on the discovery appearing in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

Callahan, M.P et al. (2011), Carbonaceous meteorites contain a wide range of extraterrestrial nucleobases, PNAS, Aug., 13995-13998 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1106493108

Gibson, C.H. and Schild, R.E. (2011), Hydro-Gravitational-Dynamics Cosmology supports Hoyle/Wickramasinghe Panspermia and an Extraterrestrial Origin of Life at 2-8 Million Years, Journal of Cosmology, Vol. 15, 6245-6248

Hoover, R. B. (2011). Fossils of Cyanobacteria in CI1 Carbonaceous Meteorites: Implications to Life on Comets, Europa, and Enceladus. Journal of Cosmology, 13.